Dzungarian steppes. Dzungar Khanate: origin and history

In the 17th and 18th centuries, on the territory of the western outskirts of modern Mongolia, Tuva, Altai and Eastern Turkestan, the powerful Oirat empire, the Dzungar Khanate, was located.

Having been defeated by the Manchu Empire, this state disappeared, and the name of the Dzungars gradually began to be forgotten. Of course, the direct descendants of the Oirats - modern Kalmyks, Dorbets and others - remember perfectly well the glorious period of their history, but in the memory of even neighboring peoples the words Dzungaria and Dzungars have faded considerably. However, even among specialists in the history of the Dzungars, who have devoted many years of their research to it, few know that there was another Dzungaria in history, and the clans called Dzungars still live among the people who were never part of the Oirat community.

Testament of Olodei

100-150 ago, different Buryat groups had versions of the legend about a hero named Bargu-Batur, who left gifts and fateful orders for his descendants to his three sons. Legend has it that Bargu-Batur, having given his youngest son Khoridoy a bow and arrows, pointed to the forest lands where he was to find his destiny. To his middle son, Buryaday, Bargu left the cattle and gave the family allotment, bequeathing him not to go on long journeys. Finally, the eldest son, Olodei, received from his father a sword, armor and an order to move west in search of military happiness and new lands. It is believed that the current Khorin Buryats originated from Khoridoy, and from Buryadai the Bulagats and Ekhirits, who formed the basis of the Western Buryats. In different versions of the legend, the descendants of Olodey are called either the Olet tribe, or the Kalmyks, or generally all the Oirats.

The plot of the legend has been known in folklore for more than a hundred years, but historians did not perceive it as an echo of some real events of the distant past. Meanwhile, philologists are gradually coming to the conclusion that before the 13-14th centuries there really was a community that spoke a very specific Mongolian dialect, the heirs of which are the dialects and dialects of the Khorin Buryats, Ekhirits, Bulagats, Barguts (whose personification in the legend is Bargu- batur). In other words, the legend, which considers the modern branches of the Buryat and Oirat peoples to be originally related, in a certain part reflects historical facts. On the other hand, none of the modern Oirat dialects are close to the dialects of the modern Barguts and Buryats, among whom, just like among the Oirats, the descendants of Oledey live.

Olet or Sagenut

The legends of Western Buryats often mention the warlike Sagenut tribe, which was in conflict with its neighbors, the Bulagats and Ekhirits. The Sagenuts were invincible for a long time, but one day, falling into a trap, they were finally defeated. Since then, they have split into many clans, settling along the outskirts of the Buryat world. Some of the Sagenuts settled in the north along the Upper Lena and taiga on the coast of Lake Baikal near the island of Olkhon, another part occupied the lower reaches of the Oka and Uda in the far west of ethnic Buryatia, the third became part of the Bulagats under the name of the Kudin Ashaabgats. In addition, several more small clans descended from the former Sagenut community remained to live in enclaves among the Bulagats, Ekhirits and other Buryat tribes.

Only one of the clans formed during this period retained the name Sagenut, the rest were called each in their own way - Ikinats, Udi Ashaabgats, Khaitals, Munkhalyuts, Bukhets, Zungars, Barungars, etc. Nevertheless, both they and their neighbors continued to remember their common origin. The Bulagats, for example, considered them all to be the descendants of Olodei. At the same time, there was also a common name for the group of Sagenut clans - olyots.

All Buryat Olet speak dialects of the Buryat language. The Olyots, who left Buryatia in the 13th-14th centuries, subsequently joined the new Oirat community that was formed at that time and gradually switched to another Mongolian dialect.

Ancient Dzungaria

It happens in history that migrating people bring the name of their former homeland to a new land. There were once two Bulgarias - in the Balkans and on the Volga, two Hungarians - in Central Europe and the Urals, and there are two Zealands - one New in the Pacific Ocean, the other “old” in Europe. As we wrote above, all Olet clans of Buryatia descend from the Sagenuts, and the Sagenuts themselves consider Dzungaria their ancestral home, but not the one to the west of the Mongolian Altai.

Records of famous Buryat ethnographers M.N. Khangalova and S.P. Baldaev show versions of legends about the origin of the Sagenuts, written down from them. “In ancient times, from the southern side of Lake Baikal, from the area of ​​​​Zungaria, the people of the Sagenut bone came to the northern side of Lake Baikal.” The story, first published in 1890, tells: “The tribe Elet (θθлθд) or Sagenut formerly lived on the southern side of Lake Baikal. It killed its military leader and, fearing punishment, went down the Selenga and crossed Baikal.” In 1935, another collector wrote down the following version: “The Sagenuts lived on the southern side of Lake Baikal. They killed their boss for mistreating them, crossed Baikal on the ice and settled together with the Ekhirits and Bulagats.”

Records made by different scientists at different times say one thing. Ancient Dzungaria was located somewhere in the Selenga valley, or, at least, in the southeast of Lake Baikal, not at all where the Dzungar Khanate was located.

In ancient times, the pronunciation of the ethnonym segenut could sound like chinge(n) or chige(n), later, in the northern Mongolian dialects, the initial h- was transformed into c- (for example, in Khalkha-Mongolian), and already in the Buryat dialects, in the phonetics of which there is no these sounds, the term began to sound like segen or (with a plural indicator) segenut. The history of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty mentions the Chike tribe, which lived on the eastern side of Lake Baikal in the 11th century, and together with the Barguts entered into a tribal union organized by Genghis Khan's ancestor Haidu and his uncle Nachin. Presumably in the middle of the 12th century, after a conflict with the Merkits, the Chikes moved to the western side of Lake Baikal.

If our reasoning is correct, then the descendants of the Buryat Sagenuts joined the Oirats in the 13th-14th centuries. Their fate in Dzungaria is a separate story, testifying to the close ties between the Mongol groups.

Dzungaria (Dzhungar depression or Dzungarian Plain); outdated Dzungaria(from Mong. Zүүngar - “left hand”; Kalm. Zүn Һar; Kaz. Zhongaria; Kyrgyz. Zhungarstan; Chinese. 準噶爾 ( Zhǔngáěr); Uyg. Gungar Oymanligi/جۇڭغار ئويمانلىغى) is a geographical and historical region of Central Asia in northern Xinjiang in northwestern China. A region with a predominantly semi-desert and steppe landscape.

Geography

Area 777,000 km². A major inland drainage depression, part of a marine basin that existed 280 million years ago during the Permian geological period. The central part of the plain is occupied by the second largest desert in China, Dzosotyn-Elisun (Kurbantongut or Gurbantyungut), where the farthest point on Earth from any sea is located ( 46°16′ N. w. 86°40′ E. d. /  46.2800° N. w. 86.6700° E. d. / 46.2800; 86.6700 (G) (I)) .

In the northern and eastern parts of the Dzungarian Desert, the soil consists of sharp rubble and gravel - products of the decomposition of local rocks. In the west, and especially in the northwest, deposits of loess clay predominate; in the south, loose sands are common, mixed with small salt lakes and extensive salt marshes.

Climate

In terms of its climate, the Dzungarian Desert is no different from the Gobi; the main characteristics of climatic phenomena are: enormous dry air with little precipitation throughout the year; sharp contrasts of summer heat and winter cold; an abundance of storms, especially in spring.

The proximity of Siberia affects the climate of Dzungaria, as a result of which winter temperatures reach -20 °C, and humidity varies widely from 76 to 254 mm.

Flora

The vegetation of the Dzungarian Desert is extremely poor and differs little from the most barren parts of the entire Gobi. In the mountain groups in the eastern part of the desert, plant life is somewhat richer. There are no trees anywhere in the Dzungarian desert. The predominant shrubs are saxaul, conifer, kopek and juzgun, the herbs are: wormwood, small grass, harmyk, goldenrod, parfolia, curly curly and various saltworts, chii grows here and there near rare springs, and rhubarb and small tulips grow in the hollows of the hills.

Fauna

In Dzungaria, the most characteristic can be considered: the Khara-Sulta antelope; saiga antelope, which lives only in the western part of the Dzungarian Desert; two species of gerbils; a wild camel living in the sands of the southern desert; three species of one-hoofed animals - dzhigetai, kulan and wild Przewalski's horse (takh).

There are about 160 species of birds in Dzungaria, including migratory, nesting and sedentary ones. But such a significant figure applies mainly to the mountains, especially the western ones and to the areas of Lake Ulyungur and the Urungu River. In the desert itself there are barely a dozen sedentary species, the most common of which are: big-footed owl, saxaul jay, desert finch, raven and horned lark, less common are the tiger-footed owl and saxaul sparrow.

Story

The Dzungar Khanate was located in the historical region of Dzungaria.

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Dzungaria in the old atlas. 1844

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Dzungaria in the old atlas. 1875

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Dzungaria in the old atlas. 1911

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At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. in Western Mongolia a separate khanate was formed, called Dzungarian (Oirat). Finding yourself at the intersection of the interests of Russia and

Qing China, this country played an important role in international relations in Central Asia of that period.

Being in an unfavorable environment, Dzungaria was experiencing great economic difficulties at that time, which were also reflected in the internal political processes taking place there.

Gradually, hegemony was seized by the Choros clan, which promoted Khan Kharakhul from its ranks. The response of the princes, dissatisfied with this state of affairs, was their migration from Dzungaria along with their dependent arats in the first third of the 17th century.

The most famous of this group were the Kalmyks, who settled on the territory of Russia and accepted Russian citizenship.

The Mongols who remained in Dzungaria, who after death in 1635 ᴦ. Khara-Khuly was led by his son Batur-Khuntaiji, they were anti-Manchu and tried to unite all the Mongols to fight them. This date is considered the time formation of the Dzungar Khanate. Some of the Oirats, dissatisfied with the creation of Dzungaria, migrated to the Volga and Kukunar, where independent Oirat khanates arose.

Nevertheless, despite anti-Chinese and anti-Manchu sentiments, East Turkestan became the main direction of foreign policy activity of the Oirats.

In the 40s. XVII century Dzungaria begins the conquest of the eastern regions of Mogulistan, starting from the territories of Chalysh and Turfan. Next they invaded Kiriya, Aksu and Kashgar.

In 1652ᴦ. Batur-Khuntaiji waged wars with the Tianynan Kirghiz and the Kazakhs, managing to push them back to other areas.

But after his death they again begin to fight with the Oirats and only to 1655 ᴦ. The eastern part of Semirechye was liberated from them. We can say that by this time a single Turkic-Mongol community had already emerged, capable of resisting the penetration of Qing China here and which saw in the capture of this region the prospect of controlling the important Tianypan section of the Great Silk Road that passed here.

Part of the local Oirat population begins to lead a sedentary lifestyle and build cities.

A set of laws, Tsaadzhin Bichik, was written, and attempts were made to create a special Oi-Rat script, which indicates an even greater separation of the Oirats from other Mongolian peoples who had by that time come under the control of the Qings and their rapprochement with the peoples of East Turkestan.

HISTORY OF THE JUNGAR KHANATE

In the territory of northwestern Mongolia, for several millennia there has existed a “biosphere way of life” that has survived to this day, based on grazing cattle breeding. Flocks of sheep and herds of horses are still roaming the steppe, yurts are white at the foot of the mountain ranges, horsemen are rushing somewhere, as they once did in the legendary times of Genghis Khan for the Mongols.

The Scythians, Xiongnu, numerous Turkic tribes and Mongols passed through the mountain gorges and wide intermountain plains of the Mongolian Altai. On the territory of northwestern Mongolia and part of modern Xinjiang, the last independent nomadic state was located - the Dzungar or Oirat Khanate.

The modern population of the Mongolian Altai - and this is more than a dozen ethnic groups - Olets, Derbets, Torgouts, Zakhchins, Khalkhas, Uriankhais, Myangads and others feel themselves to be descendants of the Dzungars. The Mongols used the term “jungar” - “left hand” - to refer to princes from the Choros clan, whose possessions were located in the valley of the Ili River in the territory of the modern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. The powerful Dzungar (Oirat) Khanate emerged in the 30s of the 17th century.

The Choros princes subjugated all the nomads of northwestern Mongolia, part of Eastern Turkestan, to their power. Dissatisfied with the strengthening of the Choros house, about 60 thousand Torgout families, led by Prince Kho-Urlyuk, set off and migrated to the lower reaches of the Volga, laying the foundation for the Kalmyk ethnic group.

The ruler of the Choros principality, Erdeni-Batur, became the ruler of the Oirat Khanate. At this time, the power of the Manchu tribes was rapidly growing in China. In 1644, the Manchu Wars captured Beijing and began

the dominance in China of the new foreign Qing dynasty, which lasted until 1911.

The Manchu emperors paid great attention to the subjugation of the nomads. Soon the Chakhar Khanate, the southern Mongol princes and the Khalkha Khanate came under their power. In Dzungaria at that time, internal peace reigned, trade was actively developing, and in 1648 the Buddhist Lama Zaya-Pandita invented a new Oirat script.

After the death of Erdeni-Batur Khan, his son Senge became the new ruler. He was killed during an internecine struggle. His brother Galdan, who was ordained a lama as a child, lived in Tibet at that time. Having learned about the murder of his brother, with the permission of the Dalai Lama, he withdrew from his monastic rank and, returning to his homeland, dealt with his brother’s killers. Under Galdan Khan, the Dzungar Khanate reached its greatest power - campaigns in Kukunor and Ordos, the capture of Turfan and all of East Turkestan.

In 1679, the Dalai Lama, the mentor and patron of Galdan Khan, granted him the title “boshokhtu” - “blessed”. In 1688, Galdan Khan, at the head of 30 thousand soldiers, entered the borders of Khalkha.

The Khalkha princes, defeated by the Dzungars, fled under the protection of the Manchus and asked for citizenship. The Manchus decided to attack the Dzungars and were defeated. The Manchu Emperor Kang-xi sent a second, larger army equipped with artillery. The battle with the second Manchu army did not bring victory to either one or the other. But already in 1696, in the vicinity of modern Ulaanbaatar, a battle took place that decided the fate of Galdan Khan.

His wars were defeated, but the Manchu losses were also very high. The Dzungar Khan left with a detachment of warriors to the west. The Manchus organized a search for him. The son of Galdan Khan was captured, who was sent to Beijing and carried in a cage through the streets of the city. It is unknown what happened to Galdan - according to some sources, he took poison, according to others, he died after falling ill on the way to Tibet.

The nephew of Galdan Khan, the son of his brother Senge, Tsevan-Rabdan, became the khan.

Emperor Kang-xi sent envoys to him with a proposal to declare himself a vassal of the Manchu emperor. In response to the refusal, war broke out again between the Dzungars and Manchus. The Dzungars resisted fiercely, repeatedly defeating the imperial troops and going on the offensive. After the death of Tsevan-Rabdan, his eldest son Galdan-Tseren became the khan of the Oirats. Hating the Manchus and wanting to free Khalkha from the Manchus, the Oirat Khan himself launched an offensive.

In the valley of the Kobdo River, in the mountains of the Mongolian Altai, not far from the fortress recently built by the Manchus, the Dzungars defeated the 20 thousandth imperial army under the command of the chief of the guard, Furdan. But in the steppes deep in the Khalkha steppes, the Dzungars were defeated and retreated. Both sides were inclined towards peace, and an agreement was reached. After this, the Oirat troops went on a campaign against the Kazakhs, who during the Manchu-Oirat War made constant raids on the nomadic Dzungars. The middle zhuz of the Kazakhs was defeated and fled under the walls of Orenburg.

After the death of Galdan-Tseren, an internecine struggle for the khan's throne began in the khanate, which ultimately led to the death of the Oirat state. Some of the Dzungar princes went over to the side of the Manchus, others used the warriors of the Kazakh sultans as allies. The Manchu Emperor Qianlong sent two columns of more than 100 thousand people to Dzungaria, this army did not encounter resistance anywhere, without firing a single shot.

Khan of the Oirats Davatsi was captured, having been betrayed by his friend the Dzungar prince Amursana, who led the vanguard of the Manchu army.

The emperor promised Amursana the throne of the Oirat Khan, when he saw that the Manchus were not going to fulfill their promises, he betrayed the Qing dynasty and rebelled.

Having settled on the Ili River, Amursana was proclaimed khan by his supporters at the headquarters of the Oirat khans. A huge army of Manchus moved to Dzungaria, destroying everything in its path, the Oirats were systematically exterminated, the nomads escaped by going within the Russian borders.

The Oirat people, numbering about 600 thousand people, were almost completely exterminated, with the exception of about 40 thousand people who fled to Russia. A small number of Oirat families survived in the Mongolian Altai in the Kobdo region, the modern center of the Khovd aimag of the Mongolian People's Republic. These were the ancestors of the modern population of northwestern Mongolia.

DZHUNGAR (OIRATS) KHANATE

The state of the Oirats in Dzungaria (1635-1758) in part of the territory of modern Northwestern China. The headquarters of the Dzungar khans was in the Ili Valley. In 1757-1758 The Dzungar Khanate was conquered by the Manchu Qing dynasty. As a result of the conquest, almost the entire population of the Khanate was destroyed.

The basis of the tribal union of the Oirats, which formed at the end of the 14th century, was made up of Western Mongolian tribal associations - Choros (Dzungars), Derbet, Khoshout and Torgout. The latter in 1627-1628. separated from the rest of the Oirats and migrated to the lower reaches of the Volga, settling the steppes of modern Kalmykia.

The first mention of Kalmyks in Russian chronicles appears in the last third of the 16th century. Thus, in one of the descriptions of Siberia it was reported that along the banks of the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers “many languages ​​live: Totarovya, Kolmyk, Mugaly.” Even at the end of the 14th century, the Turks called their Mongol-speaking neighbors who lived west of the Altai Mountains “Kalmaks” (Russian - Kalmyk). Two centuries later, this word was borrowed by the Russians and, slightly modified, began to be used to designate the population that was part of the Oirat tribal union.

In the 15th-16th centuries, the Oirats roamed Western Mongolia, in the territory from the western slopes of the Khangai Mountains in the east to the Black Irtysh and Lake Zaisan in the west. For a long time they were dependent on the Eastern Mongolian khans, but in 1587 they managed to defeat the eighty thousand-strong army of the Khalkhas in the upper reaches of the Irtysh. This victory marked the beginning of the military-political strengthening of the Oirats.

At the very end of the 16th century, they finished off the remnants of the troops of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who had fled from the Russians. The death of the Siberian Khanate allowed the Western Mongols to advance their nomads north to the upper reaches of the Ishim and Omi rivers. According to Siberian chronicles, at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Oirat possessions extended to the area of ​​the modern city of Omsk.

In the same place the “edge of the Kalmyk steppe” is marked and on later maps of S.U. Remezova. In addition to Western Mongolia, the Oirat nomads covered vast areas on the left bank of the Irtysh at the beginning of the 17th century, “occupying the steppes of its right and left banks in the middle reaches of the Irtysh” approximately to the latitude of modern Novosibirsk.
By this time, the ruler of the Choros principality Khara-Khula (in Russian documents “Karakula”, “Karakula-taisha”) began to play an important role in the tribal union.

In the Oirat historical chronicles, mention of the Choros prince Khara-Khule is found already in the story of the events of 1587, when the Western Oirat Mongols were attacked by Altyn Khan, one of the Eastern Mongol rulers. Then the united Oirat army, which included six thousand Choros, was able to repel the attackers, winning the battle on the banks of the Irtysh.

The military confrontation with the Oirats, which was started so unsuccessfully by the first Altyn Khan (he died in that battle), continued with varying success in the 17th century.

It is known that in 1607, the Derbet and Khoshout taishas turned to the Russian authorities in Siberia with a request “order Altyn the Tsar to protect them, and order military men to give them to him, and order the city to build 5 bottoms on the Omi River from Tara, so that They had no fear of wandering here from King Altan.” Soon after this, the Oirats managed to win a military victory over Altai Khan, but in 1616 the Russian ambassadors testified: “The Chinese king and Altyn king receive yasak from the Kolmaks of China: 200 camels and 1000 horses and sheep per year from each taisha...

And the people of Kolmatsk are protected from them.”
The state of the Altyn Khans (Mongol Khanate) was located on the territory of the modern Mongolian Republic, in the northwestern corner of Khalkha, between lakes Ubsa-Nur and Khubsugul. In the west it bordered on the Oirat principalities.

At the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, the Altyn Khans managed to subjugate a number of small tribal groups and nationalities of Southern Siberia that lived near the northern borders of their possessions.

As a result, the Altyn Khans were the first of the Eastern Mongolian rulers to become neighbors with the Russian state and enter into multifaceted relations with it.
In the spring of 1617, Altyn Khan's ambassadors were received in Moscow by the Russian Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Before setting off on their return journey, they were presented with a “letter of grant”, informing Altyn Khan of his acceptance of Russian citizenship and of sending him “the royal salary... - 2 gilded goblets and bratina, 2 pieces of corlatan cloth (crimson red), saber, 2 squeaks, bow.”

In a reply letter sent to the Russian Tsar at the beginning of 1619, Altyn Khan asked to ensure the safety of his ambassadors and traders. “And the Kalmyk Karakuly-Taysha is putting a stop to that good deed between us,” he complained to the tsar, proposing to join forces for a joint campaign “against those thieves on Karakuly-Taysha and his people.”

The Choros prince Kharya-Khula, who was discussed, roamed the upper reaches of the Irtysh. Until 1619 he did not come into contact with the Russian authorities. By force of arms and means of diplomacy, Khara-Khula slowly but steadily strengthened his power, subjugating the rulers of the neighboring Oirat possessions. The gradual concentration of power in the hands of the Dzungar prince allowed him to lead the struggle of the Oirats against the state of the Altyn Khans.

In preparation for war, Khara-Khula sought to secure his rear and, like Altyn Khan, tried to enlist the support of the Russian Tsar, for which purpose he first sent a special mission to Moscow in 1619. This was preceded by a military clash between the Russians and the Oirats, who migrated in the fall of 1618 to the right bank of the Irtysh between the Om River and Lake Chany.

Then the detachments sent by the governor of the city of Tara, “many Kolmatian people... were beaten and their uluses were destroyed and a lot of things were caught.”

The embassies of Khara-Khuly and Altyn Khan were simultaneously sent by the Siberian administration to the capital, together they traveled the entire multi-month journey and on the same day (January 29, 1620) alternately attended a reception with the Russian Tsar.

The ambassadors of Khara-Khula announced to Mikhail Fedorovich that their ruler and his relatives “with all their uluses ... committed a mess (sworn) that we may be under your royal majesty’s high hand in direct servitude forever relentless.

And you, the great sovereign, would welcome us, the ambassadors conveyed Khara-Khuly’s request, “to keep us under your royal high hand... at command and from our enemies in defense and protection.”
In a letter presented to Altyn Khan's ambassadors at the end of April 1620, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich diplomatically rejected the proposal for a joint military campaign against Khara-Khuly.

Altyn Khan was informed that, “pitying you, Altyn the Tsar,” a “royal order was sent from Moscow to the Siberian governors... to protect you and your land from the Kolmatsky Karakuly-taisha and from his people.” A month later, the ambassadors of the Choros prince also received an answer: they were given a “letter of grant” accepting Khara-Khuly into Russian citizenship.

“And we, the great sovereign, granted you, Karakulu-taisha, and your ulus people, accepted you into our royal favor and defense, and we want to keep you in our royal salary and charity, and ordered our Siberian governors to protect you from your enemies,” stated in this document.

The ambassadors of the newly-made subjects of the Russian Tsar had not yet managed to return to their warring rulers, and in the “Kalmyk steppe” in the early autumn of 1620 a new war was already raging between the Oirats and Altyn Khan.

In the summer of 1621, Russian scouts who visited the area between the Ob and Irtysh reported that “black Kolmaks roam there: Talai-taisha, Babagan-taisha, Mergen-taisha, Shukur-taisha, Saul-taisha and many other taishas with all their uluses, because they lifted up the black caps of Karakul-taisha and Mergen-Temya-taisha of Altyn the Tsar. And Altyn the Tsar beat them and goes to war against the Black Kalmaks, and those Taishi then wander between the Ob and Irtysh...” The names of the Oirat leaders, distorted in the Russian document, probably designated the head of the Derbet Dalai-taisha, Mergen-Temene-taishu, the son of Khara-Khuly, the Choros Chokhur-taishu and, possibly, the Khoshout Baba Khan.

In the first quarter of the 17th century, the Oirats (Teleuts) migrated south, to the Altai Territory. Khara-Khula died around 1635, shortly before the Western Mongols-Oirats formed their own state - the Dzungar Khanate.

In the second half of the 17th century. Relations between Russia and the Dzungar Khanate were mostly hostile. The Dzungar Khanate prevented the development of direct trade and diplomatic relations between Russia and China, blocking the most direct routes and forcing Russian expeditions to use more northern and eastern routes for communications (See.

Izbrant Ides. Chapters from “Notes on the Russian Embassy to China (1692-1695)”).
Later, the extensive territorial claims of the Oirat khans in Siberia, endless disputes over the right to collect tribute from the indigenous peoples of Siberia, the desire of the Dzungars to prevent the peoples of Siberia from joining Russia, and the outbreak of armed clashes on this basis - this is what prompted the government and local authorities to oppose the strengthening of the positions of the Oirats in Kazakhstan and Southern Siberia, forced them to do everything possible to prevent the Dzungar Khanate from strengthening by absorbing neighboring peoples, first of all, to prevent a Dzungar-Kazakh rapprochement.

In the 18th century In its policy towards Dzungaria, the Russian government proceeded primarily from the interests of ensuring the protection of Siberia, its population and wealth. Ideally, the task was to induce the rulers of Dzungaria to recognize Russian citizenship by any means.

In the worst case, it was necessary to achieve a “good neighbor”. In the foreign policy of Russia in Central Asia during the period under review, relations with Dzungaria occupied a leading place. The Oirat state was seen as a counterweight to the Qing Empire, as a barrier to its aggressive aspirations in this region of Asia.

That is why all attempts by Qing diplomacy to persuade the tsarist government to an alliance against the Dzungars and to persuade Kalmyk troops to move against the Oirats failed.
The policy of the rulers of the Dzungar Khanate towards Russia was largely determined by the nature and state of relations between the Western Mongols and the Manchu Qing Empire: during the period of military defeats, the rulers of Dzungaria sought to enlist military support from the Russian government and even raised, as was the case in 1720, the issue about Russian citizenship.

However, as soon as the threat of defeat and, in general, military pressure from China weakened, Russian-Dzungarian contradictions intensified again.
In the triangle - China - Russia - Dzungaria, the position of the Russian side was the most preferable.

The Qing Empire and the Dzungar Khanate sought an alliance with Russia, but the latter did not derive significant benefits from this.
Taking advantage of the civil strife among the Oirat princes, the Qing Empire in 157-1758. literally wiped out the Dzungar Khanate and its population from the face of the earth. An incorrect assessment of the situation and the weakness of the military forces in Siberia determined Russia’s policy of non-interference in ongoing events and allowed the Qing to deal with their hitherto powerful enemy without hindrance.

Only a few tens of thousands of Oirats and Altaians escaped under the protection of Russian fortresses.

After the Qing Empire conquered the Dzungar and Yarkand khanates in 1757, the borders of the Chinese state approached the territories of modern Kazakhstan. At the same time, Central Asia became a zone of interests of the Russian Empire. In the first half of the 18th century. The Russian Empire included the Small and Middle Zhuz.

After the completion of the annexation of the eastern Kazakh lands (Great Zhuz) to Russia (1822-1882), the question arose about the mutual borders of the Russian and Qing empires.

During the reign of the Qing dynasty, three main documents related to the Russian-Chinese border were signed: the Beijing Additional Treaty of November 2, 1860, the Chuguchak Protocol of October 25, 1864.

and the St. Petersburg Treaty of February 12, 1881. The first of them outlined only the general direction of the border, and the second determined the passage of the border along the main well-known geographical landmarks. In 1881, Russia returned the Ili region to China, in connection with which it was necessary to clarify the border from the Dzungarian Gate to the territory of Kyrgyzstan, as well as in the area of ​​​​Lake Zaisan.

In addition to these fundamental documents, representatives of the Xinjiang provincial authorities, on the one hand, and the Omsk and Vernensky administrations, on the other, drew up and signed the Khabarasu Protocol of 1870, the Baratalinsky Protocol of October 16, 1882, and the Maykapchagai Protocol of July 31, 1883 ., Alkabek protocol of August 23, 1883, Tarbagatai (Chuguchak) protocol of September 21, 1883.

Thus, the border line was legally formalized in full.

Dzungar Khanate - the last nomadic empire

The historical period from the end of the late Middle Ages to the beginning of the New Age is known in specialized literature as the “Period of the Small Mongol Invasion.” This was the era when the centuries-old confrontation between the Nomad and the Farmer finally ended in favor of the latter. But paradoxically, it was at this time that the Great Steppe gave birth to the last Nomadic Empire, which was able to fight almost equally with the largest agricultural states of the region

The period of Asian history from the end of the late Middle Ages to the beginning of the New Age is known in specialized literature as the “period of the small Mongol invasion.” This was the era when the centuries-old confrontation between the Nomad and the Farmer finally ended in favor of the latter. During the XV-XVII centuries. Previously, powerful nomadic peoples, one after another, recognized the suzerainty of sedentary agricultural empires, and the territory of sovereign nomadic states shrank like shagreen leather. But, paradoxically, it was at this time that the Great Steppe gave birth to the last nomadic empire, capable of fighting the strongest states almost on equal terms

Period from the 30s. XVII century until the first half of the 18th century. was extremely important in the life of the peoples not only of Middle, Central and East Asia, but also of Russia. At this time, on the shores of the Pacific Ocean, the Russian “throw to meet the Sun”, begun by Ermak, was completed, the general contours of the eastern and southeastern borders of the Russian state, as well as the western and northwestern borders of China, were formed, with some changes preserved to this day; The territory of residence of the Central Asian peoples (Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Karakalpaks) took shape, and the Mongolian people were divided.

The initiators of the creation of a centralized state in Western Mongolia were the Oirat princes from the house of Choros. In the mid-30s. XVII century one of them - Batur-huntaiji - managed to unite the previously warring tribes. Over the next 120 years, the Dzungar Khanate became one of the key political “players” in the Central Asian region. The Dzungars stopped Russian expansion into Southern Siberia, defeated the North Mongolian state of the Altyn Khans, at the end of the 17th century. subjugated East Turkestan, inhabited by Muslims, devastated the nomads of East and South Kazakhstan, and defeated the khans of East Mongolia in a fierce confrontation.

The most difficult test for Dzungaria were three wars with the most powerful state in the region - the Qing Empire. The fighting took place over vast areas, however, despite the utmost effort, the Empire was never able to subjugate the young Western Mongolian power. In the first half of the 18th century. under the control of the Oirat rulers was a significant part of modern Kazakhstan, the northern part of the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, the southwest of the Republic of Mongolia and the southern part of the Altai Mountains.

What is the reason for the brilliant victories of the Dzungars over their powerful warlike neighbors for almost a hundred years?

Unlike their eastern fellow tribesmen, the Western Mongols lived in a centralized state, headed by Hongtaiji rulers who had virtually unlimited power. In the context of the rapid development of agricultural states, the Dzungar rulers implemented a grand experiment to create a hybrid society in which the traditional nomadic way of life was combined with elements of a sedentary agricultural culture. To survive, nomadic communities had to adapt to the changing political and economic "climate" of the continent. Of all the nomadic peoples, it was the Dzungars who succeeded in this to the greatest extent.

Already Batur-huntaiji began to actively encourage agriculture and build fortified “small towns”. His followers actively resettled representatives of sedentary agricultural peoples to central Dzungaria to develop arable farming there. Thanks to the help of foreign craftsmen, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy and cloth production began to develop in the Khanate.

Elements of modernization were especially evident in the military sphere. It should be noted that the military art of the nomads of Western Mongolia went through two main stages in its development, which with some degree of convention can be designated as “Oirat” and “Dzungarian”.

"Oirat" military art

Throughout most of the XV - first half of the XVII centuries. the weapons and tactics of the Western Mongols (Oirats) differed little from the weapons and tactics of the nomads of Southern and Eastern Mongolia.

The main striking force of the army were medium-armed armored spearmen, capable of fighting at a distance using bows (and later matchlock guns), and at a short distance, knocking down the enemy using a spear attack and subsequent horse chopping. The main melee weapons were long striking spears and pikes, as well as bladed weapons - broadswords and slightly curved sabers.

Wealthy nomads used various types of metal shells, while ordinary nomads used shells quilted with cotton wool, which could repeat the cut of traditional outerwear, a robe. The warrior’s hands were protected by shoulder pads and folded bracers that came from the west, and his neck and throat were protected by metal, leather and fabric aventails. The head was covered with riveted helmets equipped with pommels with bushings for plumes.

The most common type of plume was a tassel made of narrow fabric ribbons, which was already used in the 17th century. became a symbol of Oirat independence. Sultans made from horsehair and bird feathers were also widely used. The nobility sported high spherocylindrical helmets, shaped like a vase or a jug with a long narrow neck - such helmets allowed soldiers to see their commanders on the battlefield from afar.

The opinion about the primitiveness of steppe defensive weapons during the late Middle Ages is refuted by information from written sources. Mongolian and Altai “kuyash masters” made armor, which was prestigious to wear even among the highest feudal aristocracy of Central Asia. For the possession of captured Buryat “kuyaks,” real fights broke out among Russian servicemen and “hunting” people. Moreover: the Russian authorities recommended that the Cossacks take tribute from the Siberian “Kuznetsk people” “... with helmets, and spears, and sabers.”

Mongol warriors used various types of formations: wedge, lava, loose formation, as well as dense formations in ranks, which European travelers compared to the formation of the “winged” Polish hussars. One of the favorites was the “bow-key” formation: the center of the army was bent back, the flanks were extended towards the enemy. During the battle, one or both wings extended forward delivered a powerful blow to the enemy’s flanks, and then went to his rear.

Before the battle, the nomads lined up in detachments, led by the khan's warriors. The banner poles of the unit commanders were equipped with flags or horse tails, and large banners were carried by special “bagaturas”. The fall of the banner often caused panic in the ranks of the detachment.

The attack began with the roar of drums, and at the moment of collision the enemy was deafened by the roar of large trumpets. The first blow was usually delivered by archers, then spearmen rushed into the attack, and then a fierce hand-to-hand fight began. If the enemy withstood such an attack, the Mongol cavalry immediately retreated. The Oirat epic colorfully describes the advance of masses of spear cavalry: “At that hour, the bunchuks of banners appeared like reeds; spear points flashed like sugar cane.”

This tactic was good against an enemy armed with the same bladed weapons, but it was ineffective against rifle shooters. Attempts by nomads to acquire firearms were harshly suppressed by the governments of agricultural states. The Russian Tsardom and the Qing Empire imposed a strict embargo on the supply of guns to the Mongolian states.

Firearms era

Military reforms of the Dzungar army at the end of the 17th - first half of the 18th century. were primarily associated with the development of firearms. The first facts of the use of handguns by the Oirats date back to the beginning of the 17th century.

In the second half of the 17th century. Mass supplies of weapons began from Central Asia and Russia. The Dzungars managed to circumvent the restrictions imposed by the Russian government on the sale of weapons to nomads thanks to the mediation of Central Asian Muslim merchants and Siberian “princes.” In Moscow and other cities of Russia, merchants explicitly, and more often secretly, purchased weapons, and then, together with trade caravans, secretly transported them to Dzungaria. The scope of the smuggling trade is amazing even now: until the early 80s. XVII century “30 or more cartloads” of firearms were regularly sent to Dzungaria. It was almost impossible to do this without the knowledge of Russian service people in Siberia. There is reason to believe that representatives of the highest command staff of the Siberian prisons were also involved in the smuggling trade. However, supplies from Central Asia still played a major role in the rearmament of the Dzungarian army.

In the last quarter of the 17th century. What happened was what the Russian tsars and Chinese emperors feared most: the monopoly of the agricultural states on the massive use of firearms was broken. For late medieval Asia, this event can be compared in significance to the modern expansion of the club of nuclear powers at the expense of “rogue states.” The spread of the “fiery battle” to Dzungaria radically changed the entire face of the Central Asian wars.

Thanks to the massive import of guns, the traditional composition of the nomad army branches changed - numerous units of shooters armed with handguns appeared in it. The Dzungar warriors mastered the art of shooting from it quite quickly. The shooters rode horses and dismounted on the battlefield, that is, they actually represented “Asian dragoons.”

The density of rifle fire from the Oirats was so great that the Manchu warriors, despite the support of their own artillery, were forced to dismount and attack the Dzungars in infantry columns. The main task of the Dzungar riflemen was to stop the attack of the enemy troops, while the cavalry (which made up the second line of the Dzungar troops) was supposed to overturn his flanks.

This tactic, based on active cavalry actions supported by “firearmed” infantry, was widely used in Central Asia back in the 16th century. Largely thanks to her, victories were won over the Khalkhas (which led to the liquidation of Eastern Mongolian statehood) and the best army of the Far East - the regular troops of the Qing Empire.

Cannons on camels

Dzungaria's dependence on the supply of firearms from abroad posed a threat to the country's national security, therefore, at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. Extraordinary measures were taken to establish its production in steppe conditions. Thanks to the assistance of Russian and, probably, Central Asian craftsmen, Dzungaria established its own production of matchlock guns and gun ammunition. Thousands of local and foreign craftsmen and ordinary nomads worked in large arms production centers. As a result, firearms became widespread even among ordinary Dzungar warriors.

Most Dzungarian-made guns had a matchlock, a long barrel, a narrow butt and, often, a wooden bipod, relying on which could significantly improve shooting accuracy. Gun ammunition (bag, flint, pouches for bullets, etc.) was worn on the belt. Sometimes, to increase the rate of fire, gunpowder was poured into special measures made of bone or horn. Such Asian “bandeliers,” unlike their European counterparts, were usually worn not over the shoulder, but around the neck.

Dzungar army of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. consisted of squads of huntaiji and large Oirat feudal lords, people's militia, squads of vassals and allies of the Khanate. All Oirats, except children, decrepit old people and lamas, were considered liable for military service and carried out military service. Upon news of the approach of the enemy, all men subject to conscription were to immediately arrive at the headquarters of the local feudal ruler. Thanks to the relatively compact residence of most of the Oirats, the Dzungar rulers were able to quickly mobilize the required number of warriors. According to Russian diplomats, the size of the Dzungar army in the first third of the 18th century. reached 100 thousand people.

The last and final stage of the Dzungar military reforms is associated with the appearance of artillery. In 1726, the first factory for the production of cannons was built in Dzungaria in the Issyk-Kul region. The organization of its work was entrusted to the sergeant of the Swedish army Johann Gustav Renat, who was captured by Russian soldiers near Poltava and then transported to Tobolsk. In 1716 he was captured a second time, this time by the Dzungars. The sergeant was promised freedom and a generous reward in exchange for organizing cannon production in Oiratia. To train him in cannon craft, he was given 20 gunsmiths and 200 workers, and several thousand people were assigned to auxiliary work.

According to Renat’s later testimony, he “made all the guns only 15 four-pound guns, 5 small ones, and a twenty-ten-pound martyr.” However, according to information from Russian ambassadors, the number of guns manufactured by the Swede was much greater. It is unlikely that Renat invented new types of guns; most likely, he simply reproduced the forms of guns known to him, but without European-type carriages and wheels - in Dzungaria there were no roads in the European sense of the word along which wheeled artillery could be transported. The guns were transported on camels, with the barrels secured in special “nurseries” on their humps.

The foundations of artillery production laid by the Swede bore fruit for another decade and a half. According to the Dzungars themselves, light guns transported on camels in the early 40s. XVIII century numbered in the thousands, and heavy guns and mortars in the dozens.

The ebb of guns in Dzungaria in the 40s. XVIII century Along with the Oirats, Russian masters also worked. However, after the civil strife began in Dzungaria, artillery production began to decline. Thus, in 1747, a copper cannon made by the Russian master Ivan Bildega and his comrades “exploded during testing.”

Foreign specialists also played an important role in training Dzungarian shooters in European techniques of distance combat. Not far from the khan’s headquarters, regular exercises were organized, during which the Oirats marched “formed in columns and ranks,” made turns and formations, and also performed “gun maneuvers” and fired in volleys.

The appearance of a fairly large artillery fleet, the use of which also had a strong psychological effect, allowed the Oirat commanders to adjust their methods of warfare. During the battles, the guns were placed on high ground and camouflaged. The light Dzungar cavalry lured enemy troops into the field and brought artillery and dismounted riflemen under attack. Stationary guns hit the advancing infantry and cavalry of the enemy at point blank range. The detachments, upset by rifle and cannon salvoes, were attacked by mounted spearmen and squeakers.

Battle tactics were extremely flexible. Plated spear cavalry, lightly armed horsemen with pikes, bows and guns, foot archers, “camel” artillery - they all interacted effectively and complemented each other.

Thus, the military successes of the last nomadic empire were due to the successful modernization of the armed forces. The effectiveness of new weapons and new combat tactics was proven by the successful wars of the Dzungars against both nomadic and sedentary peoples.

The Dzungar Khanate died in the middle of the 18th century. as a result of a long internecine struggle among the Oirat feudal lords. The entire steppe world of Central Asia and Southern Siberia was actually divided between the largest regional powers - Russia and China. The history of nomadic peoples and nomadic empires, as an independent subject of world politics, has ended.

The Dzungaria Desert, or Dzungarian Plain, looks like a huge sandbox surrounded by high mountains. At the foot of the mountains stretches a sloping rocky plain. There is an abundance of sand here, it is very fine, formed from sedimentary rocks and hard rocks of the neighboring mountains, destroyed by wind and water erosion over millions of years. Dzungaria is like a sandy ocean, where waves of sand move under the influence of the wind descending from the mountains, forming chains of dunes up to 12 m high. Because of these sand hills, Dzungaria has turned into small hills, where flat basins alternate with groups of hills.
The strong winds prevailing in Dzungaria created a unique topography of “aeolian cities”: when rocks on the hills weather, solid layers act as cornices and become like man-made structures several stories high.
The large central part of Dzungaria is occupied by the Dzosotyn-Elisun, Karamaily and Kobbe deserts, covered with massifs of dunes and ridge sands.
Dzungaria only seems waterless: in fact, deep underground there is a whole sea of ​​fresh water. However, it only comes close to the surface in the south, and only here can the local population engage in irrigated agriculture. The further north you go, the greater the depth of fresh water, and the desert is replete with whitish spots of salt marshes.
Even further north is a zone of lifeless sands. But in the west there is more water: here humid air masses leave water on the mountain slopes, flowing down to the plain. Therefore, lakes are often found here framed by dense reed thickets.
Only in the southwest, where the desert approaches the very foot of the mountains, are there rivers originating under the snow caps and glaciers of the mountains. Flowing down the slopes of the mountains, the rivers come out onto the plain, forming sairs - drying up riverbeds.
The vegetation of Dzungaria is predominantly steppe; trees (mostly fir, larch and poplar) can be found only in the foothills, where there is enough moisture for them. The most characteristic plant of these places is Zaisan saxaul, which can be used as firewood, which is why it is threatened with complete extinction: winters in Dzungaria are extremely frosty, and not all local residents can afford other types of fuel. The same fuel is wormwood, which is also suitable for feeding livestock. No less important for the local population is dyrisun (a shrub plant), from which the wicker walls of yurts are made.
The fauna of Dzungaria is also not very diverse: for example, there are only about two dozen species of mammals. The most famous are the Przewalski's horse (in Dzungaria it is called takhi), the kulan and the wild camel. The most famous predators are the tiger and leopard, living in the reeds, bears and lynxes, living in the foothills. What is abundant in Dzungaria are poisonous snakes, tarantulas, scorpions, phalanges and karakurts.
Central Asian Dzungaria is a large endorheic semi-desert and desert depression in northern Xinjiang in northwestern China. Dzungaria is located between the Altai and Tien Shan mountains. In the center of Dzungaria is the Dzosotyn-Elisun desert.
In the depths of Dzungaria, colossal deposits of coal, iron ore, gold and oil have been discovered. However, it is extremely difficult to extract and export all this wealth through the steppes and mountains, and Dzungaria still remains for the most part a peasant region, where the Oirats grow barley and graze short Dzungarian horses.
In ancient times, people avoided Dzungaria. Only with the advent of large nomadic tribes did it become possible to move through the desert without the risk of perishing in it forever. Dzungaria as a historical region until the 14th century. was a Mongol Khanate. Until 1759, Dzungaria was part of the Oirat Khanate, after which it was conquered by China.
The desert itself was not of interest to the invaders; they were interested in the Dzungarian Gate: a mountain pass between the Dzungarian Alatau from the west and the Barlyk ridge from the east, connecting the Balkhash-Alakol basin and the Dzungarian plain. Since ancient times, the Dzungarian Gate was used as a transport route by the nomadic peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The Great Silk Road ran through the gate. At the beginning of the 13th century. Genghis Khan led his hordes through it to conquer Central Asia.
The first Europeans to study Dzungaria in detail were Russian scientists N.M. Przhevalsky and V.A. Obruchev.
Traveler and naturalist Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) not only found a wild horse, which was later named after him, but also made a scientific description of Dzungaria and the surrounding area, for which he was awarded a personal medal of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences with the inscription: “To the first explorer of the nature of Central Asia."
Geologist, paleontologist and geographer Vladimir Afanasyevich Obruchev (1863-1956) completed the studies of Dzungaria begun by N.M. Przhevalsky, covering 13,625 km on foot through mountains and deserts.
By now, Dzungaria - as a political and geographical region - has disappeared from the maps. Only the name of the mountain range has been preserved as a memory of it. Its length is 400 km, and it serves as the natural border of Kazakhstan with the People's Republic of China.
There are few suitable lands for cultivation in Dzungaria, and the population is constantly growing, which forces every piece of soil to be cultivated. Difficult climatic conditions and an acute lack of water hinder the development of agriculture in Dzungaria: here it is possible only in oases and along the foot of the Tien Shan, where there are many rivers. Nevertheless, it is possible to produce excellent harvests of fruits and vegetables here, although this requires hard physical labor, mainly manual labor.
A special type of pastoralism is the breeding of horses and camels: the main means of transport in Dzungaria.
Settlements are confined mainly to oases; there are only three large cities: Urumqi, Ghulja and Karamay. The latter was very lucky: back in 1955, one of the largest oil fields in China was discovered near the city, and since then Karamay has been developing as a center for oil production and refining. But in Urumqi they solved the problem of energy supply in their own way: today the largest wind energy center in China has been built here.
Recently, tourism has been developing here, including paleontological tourism: in Dzungaria there is a world center for dinosaur fossils.

general information

Nearest cities: Urumqi - 3,112,559 people. (2010), Gulja - 430,000 people. (2003) Karamay - 262,157 people. (2007)

Languages: Uyghur, Chinese, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Mongolian.
Ethnic composition: Chinese, Uighurs, Kazakhs, Dungans, Kyrgyz, Mongols, Manchus.

Religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, shamanism.

Currency unit: Yuan.

Large rivers: Manas, Urungu, upper reaches of the Irtysh.

Large lakes: Ebi-Nur, Manas, Ulyungur, Ailik.

Major airport: Urumqi Diwopu International Airport.

Neighboring territories: in the northwest - the mountains of the Dzhungar Alatau, in the northeast - the mountains of the Mongolian Altai, in the south - the Tien Shan mountains, in the extreme east - the transition to the Mongolian desert.

Numbers

Population: about 1 million people. (2002).

Population density: 1.43 people/km 2 .
Average altitude: plain - from 300 to 800 m, surrounding mountains - about 3000 m.

Climate and weather

Economy

Attractions

■ Natural: deserts Dzosotyn-Elisun, Kurbantongut, Karamaily and Kobbe, Dzungarian Alatau, Dzungarian Gate, Lake Manas.

Curious facts

■ The peculiarity of the drying river beds of Dzungaria - the sair - is that even in a dry state they can provide water. Rainwater enters the riverbeds, percolates and forms a second, underground watercourse. The local population digs wells directly in the beds of drying up rivers.

■ Not a single attempt to tame the Dzungar kulans was successful. They get used to people and are not afraid of them, but this does not make them tame. Kulan - from the Mongolian “hulan”, which means “invincible, fast, nimble.”

■ There are several versions regarding the meaning of the name Dzungaria. According to one of them, the local population has always opposed Dzungaria to the “right plain” - this is how the Western Mongols call the Tibetan Plateau. The origin of these names is connected with the ancient tradition of the Mongolian and Turkic peoples when orienting themselves to face the east: then Dzungaria is on the left, in the north, and Tibet is on the right, in the south.

■ There are only about two thousand individuals of Przewalski's horse on earth, and the entire population comes from several animals captured at the beginning of the 20th century. in Dzungaria.

■ In former times, the Manas River flowed into the lake of the same name. However, due to the fact that the river water is completely withdrawn for irrigation, the lake has partially dried up.

■ The Dzungarian Gate is narrow and long (up to 50 km), a strong wind constantly blows here, and therefore the Dzungarian Gate is compared to a natural wind tunnel. Entering the gorge, the air is compressed, the speed of its movement immediately increases sharply, which is why hurricane winds are formed at speeds of up to 70 m/s. In winter, this “draft” is called “ibe”; when the weather changes, it is called “saikan”.

■ Many dinosaur remains have been found in Dzungaria, and some are named after the place where they were found: the pterosaur (flying dinosaur) Dzungaripterus and the Dzungarian crocodylomorph.