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The first theories of interaction included a description of the structure of social action. In the history of social psychology, several attempts have been made to describe structure interactions. Thus, among sociologists (M. Weber, P. Sorokin, T. Parsons) and social psychologists, action theory, or theory of social action, in which, in various versions, a description of the individual act of action was proposed. Researchers have recorded some components of interaction: people, their connections, their impact on each other and, as a consequence, their changes. The objective of the study was to search for the dominant factors motivating actions in interaction.

For example, according to the theory of T. Parsons, which described the structure of social action, the basis of social activity is interpersonal interactions on which human activity is built (as a result of individual actions). From the point of view of the abstract scheme, the elements of interaction are: a) the actor; b) “other” (the object to which the action is directed); c) norms (by which interaction is organized); d) values ​​(which each participant accepts); d) the situation (in which the action is performed). According to Parsons, the actor is motivated by the realization of his attitudes (needs). In relation to the “other”, he develops a system of orientation and expectations: the desire to achieve a goal and taking into account the likely reactions of the other. The author identifies five pairs of such orientations, intending to use them to describe all types of human activity.

However, this theory had no significance for the empirical analysis of various types of actions. According to A. N. Leontiev, with this approach it is impossible to grasp the substantive side of actions, because it is determined by the content of social activity as a whole. In addition, the direction proposed by Parsons inevitably leads to the loss of the social context, since in it the entire wealth of social activity (the entire set of social relations) is derived from the psychology of the individual.

Sociological studies of the structure of interaction are associated with a description of the stages of its development. In this case, interaction is divided not into elementary acts, but into the stages through which it passes. This approach was developed by the Polish sociologist J. Szczepanski. The main concept in describing social behavior according to Szczepanski is the concept of social connection, which is presented as the sequential implementation of: a) spatial contact; b) mental contact (mutual interest); c) social contact (joint activity); d) interaction ("systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction on the part of the partner..."); e) social relations (mutually related systems of actions). According to the author, the arrangement of a series of steps preceding interaction is not too strict: spatial and mental contacts in this scheme act as prerequisites for the individual act of interaction. However, the inclusion of “social contact” in the prerequisites for interaction takes us away from a true understanding of the substantive side of the interaction itself, since this interaction can be considered as the implementation of joint activity.

In modern psychology, the following main theories of interaction can be distinguished:

• 1) social exchange theory (J. Homane, P. Blau);
• 2) the theory of symbolic interactionism (J. G. Mead, G. Blumer, I. Goffman);
• 3) psychoanalytic theory (3. Freud);
• 4) transactional analysis (E. Bern);
• 5) cognitive theories, among which, in terms of describing interaction, the main attention is drawn to balance theories.

Behavioral approach. Social exchange theory J. Homans includes consideration of social behavior as the interaction of people who are in continuous processes of exchange with each other. At the same time, people can exchange both material and intangible values ​​(ideas, attention, care, etc.). This theory is based on behavioral methodology, according to which those reactions that are more likely to receive reward are fixed in human behavior. Accordingly, if a person receives rewards from another person (for example, in the form of attention, positive emotions), the contact continues. However, interaction will continue when the cost for it (for example, time, personal effort, money) does not exceed the reward. If one of the parties to the interaction feels disadvantaged, the interaction may end or turn into conflict (for example, you always invite your friend to go to a cafe, pay the bill, but do not even receive gratitude from her). Accordingly, if a person is confident that his costs are compensated by the benefits that contact brings him, the relationship remains stable. However, the second partner must also have this confidence. Thus, there is a kind of exchange of mutual benefits between the interaction partners. If one of the partners feels disadvantaged, he seeks to regulate the interaction, and on this basis a conflict may arise.

Thus, a social connection is established and maintained if it meets the following conditions:

• 1) corresponds to personal expediency, i.e. costs do not exceed the remuneration received;
• 2) if mutual agreement is achieved, uniform criteria for pay and rewards are developed and a mutual balance of costs and rewards is achieved.

However, there are relationships that exist for quite a long time, but are not consistent and symmetrical. For example, in a pair of two friends, one always receives more rewards than the other.

To explain asymmetrical relationships, Homane puts forward the principle of least interest, which is that the person who has the least interest in the continuation of a social situation of exchange has a greater ability to dictate the terms of the exchange to other participants in the situation. As a result, he gains power because he has more ability to reward others than his partners. Therefore, any power relations, even violent ones, are, according to Homans, cases of asymmetrical exchange.

Homane uses the principle of distributive justice, according to which any exchange relationship strives to ensure that the rewards of participants are proportional to their costs, which inevitably gives rise to differentiation among people. Consequently, social inequality is natural, fair, and natural, since it reflects the proportions of people’s personal contributions to the social whole.

Thus, power relations arise as special cases of social exchange, when one of the participants in the exchange process has a monopoly on a certain reward (material or intangible), which the other participants strive to obtain. In this case, he will try to exchange the reward he has as profitably as possible, imposing his will on other participants, which ultimately leads to the formation of a system of ranks, social statuses, and social stratification. But in order to establish itself, power must be sanctioned by the other participants in the exchange, legitimized on the basis of norms and values ​​based on a certain cultural system, and this cultural system is not associated with exchange processes.

Symbolic interactionist theory J. G. Mead views interaction between people as a continuous dialogue, during which people observe, comprehend and understand the intentions of another person.

Interaction from the point of view of interactionists is of a symbolic nature, i.e. people use symbols to exchange actions. Any symbol (for example, a word), in turn, arises as a result of interaction and has a contractual nature. People must decipher the meaning of a symbol in a similar way in order to understand each other. For example, the same gesture (nodding your head) has different meanings in different cultures, which can lead to misunderstandings between people. If people decipher symbols in the same way, they adapt their actions to the actions of other people and interaction occurs effectively.

People react not only to the actions of other people, but also to their intentions, i.e. “unravel” the intentions of other people by analyzing their actions, putting themselves in the place of another person, taking the role of another. From the position of symbolic interactionism, interaction between people is viewed as a continuous dialogue, during which they observe, comprehend each other's intentions and react to them.

Interactionists emphasize that language is the main factor in the theory of interpersonal interaction. Language has a symbolic nature; any linguistic symbol (word) is a private meaning that arose as a result of private interaction and has a contractual nature, i.e. people, striving to achieve practical results in cooperation with each other, agreed to accept a certain meaning for a certain word. A similar understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols facilitates interaction and allows one to interpret each other’s behavior. Understanding each other's behavior, people change their own, adapting their actions to the actions of others, coordinating their actions with other people, learning to see themselves through the eyes of the group, and taking into account the expectations of other people.

Social expectations - expectations - influence human behavior; he is forced to behave as required by the norms of behavior, as expected by other people and society as a whole, realizing the rights and responsibilities that are inherent in his social role.

A social role is a relatively stable pattern of behavior, including actions, thoughts, feelings, developed in a given society to perform a certain social function, to realize a certain social status.

Social status is a set of rights and responsibilities of a person determined by his position in a certain social system and hierarchy of social relations. Social status is associated with a system of social expectations (a person is expected to take certain actions, a person expects others to treat themselves in a certain way). If a person’s behavior diverges from expectations, if he performs his role poorly, then the people around him, the group, apply coercive social sanctions to him: ridicule, boycott, threats, disapproval, punishment, etc.

Three types of role implementation can be distinguished: “imitation”, “execution”, “choice”. For an early age, “imitation” is inherent - trying on positions, expectations, behavior patterns of different social roles. “Performance” is the result of the interaction of a person’s social “I” and role expectations. If opposing social demands are placed on a person, a conflict of roles may arise, and then the person “chooses” a role, ignoring other requirements and roles, other groups of people, while the person moves away from people who underestimate him and strives to get closer to those who value him, with those groups that become significant, important, chain, referent for him.

A type of symbolic interactionism is the theory of social dramaturgy by I. Hoffman. This author views interpersonal interaction as a kind of theatrical play, where people act out roles and performances, being both director and actor, carefully guarding their “private backstage” places where they can relax after the performance. This concept of Goffman is called the dramaturgical approach, or the concept of impression management, i.e. people themselves create situations in order to express symbolic meanings with the help of which they make a good impression on others, they try to “save their face” if for some reason they make an unfavorable impression.

The ethnomethodology of G. Garfinkel is also adjacent to symbolic interactionism. The subject of study of ethnomethodologists is the accepted rules governing interaction between people (these rules can determine when it is appropriate to say something, or remain silent, or joke, etc.). These rules may be specific when interacting with people we know very well. If a person violates these rules, then interaction with people becomes very difficult and the consequences can be unpredictable.

Rules and self-evident provisions, opinions, stocks of knowledge available to people form the basis of the social world, i.e. ideas, values, rules, norms are seen as the center of social life and interaction. Ethnomethodology studies the methods by which people create social order: values, norms, beliefs, but they themselves can change, die, and have their own internal structure. By describing the situation, establishing connections between meanings, clarifying their meaning, people come to establish some rules, come to agreement, and achieve social stability. Social structure is considered as a product of interaction, as a consequence of the relationship between “surface” and “deep” rules, where “surface” rules are the norms of social life, and “deep” interpretative rules are the basis for the emergence and existence of any meanings, the basis of any education and training (A. Sikurel).

The development of common criteria and standards of behavior of people in relation to each other unites people. T. Parsons called symbolic intermediaries these common criteria that are understandable to everyone, and everyone is ready to use them. Among them he included a system of values, money, law, power, which create the opportunity to regulate social relations on the basis of sociocultural, economic and political criteria. Society, through norms, values, and standards of behavior, establishes a certain set of social characteristics that any participant in public life should have, regardless of his individual characteristics. The value system that arose to regulate relations in society as a whole largely subjugates the social mechanisms for regulating interpersonal relations at the micro level.

Psychoanalytic approach, the founder of which is S. Freud, considers the process of interaction from the point of view of reproducing childhood experience. In the process of interaction, people unwittingly use concepts and scripts that they learned in childhood.

If in childhood the child’s reactions of submission, humility, and compliance were dominant, then in the future such a person will prefer to obey and not take responsibility for making important decisions. Freud believed that people form and remain in social groups partly because they feel a sense of loyalty and obedience to the group leaders, unwittingly identifying them with powerful individuals, personified in childhood by their fathers. In such situations, people regress, returning to an earlier stage of development. If people's interactions are initially disorganized and they do not have a clear plan of action, then this helps to strengthen the power of the group leader.

In theory transactional analysis combines the principles of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. E. Berne, the founder of transactional analysis, considers interaction as the result of a choice of position and a corresponding action - a transaction. There are three positions that are the result of updating the corresponding state of the individual: Child; Adult; Parent (these states are correlated with three personality substructures according to 3. Freud, but do not correspond to them completely). A child is the actualization of a state characteristic of a child: direct perception and response to what is happening, a position “from below.” Parent – ​​the state “from above”, the position of a knowledgeable, authoritative, instructive parent. An adult is the state of a partner, “on an equal footing.” Each action is a transaction performed when a certain state is updated. At any given time, only one state of the “I” (ego) can be actualized, but the state can change quickly. Interaction is an exchange of transactions. In this case, transactions can be complementary – with full mutual understanding of the partners, or intersecting – with a lack of coordination between the partners’ actions. Overlapping transactions are potential conflict generators.

Berne also identifies types of interaction: “absence,” rituals, entertainment, games, joint activity, intimacy.

Cognitive theories. From the point of view of the cognitive approach, it is not the stimuli themselves that determine a person’s behavior, but how he perceives and interprets them.

Balance theories, or cognitive correspondence theories, which are a type of cognitive theories, consider a person’s behavior as a function of his relationship to the partner and to the object in connection with which communication occurs.

Correspondence theories include:

1) Heider’s theory of structural balance: he postulates the balance of the cognitive structure in the situation of perceiving another person and building two sets of relationships: to this person and to an object common to two communication partners. Each person tries to discern the motives of another person. These common sense categories need to be considered along with experimental studies.

The main attention is paid to the problem of perception of another person.

“My friend’s friend is my friend” is a formula that reflects the desire for balance.

This theory is based on two postulates:

• balance;
• attributions (a person attributes certain qualities and reasons for behavior to another).

Relationship model: P – O – X (P is the perceiving person, O is the other, X is the object that they perceive). All these three points are interconnected. An object can be perceived as a person, an object, or a phenomenon (for example, an election situation). A positive attitude towards O is transferred to X - they are transitive (for example: a mother loves her daughter, a daughter loves her groom - therefore, the mother will love her daughter's groom. If the mother does not love this groom - an unbalanced structure, someone must change her attitude). Positive relationships are transitive, but negative ones are not, they are not transferred to another person;

• 2) Newcomb’s theory of communicative acts (Fig. 4.3): A – B – X (A – perceiver, B – other, X – object). If A and B treat each other well, they tend to treat X equally; if not, they seek to negotiate this general relationship. If this fails, people can separate (A is a businessman. He wants to buy a boat X. He loves B’s wife. The wife is against the boat. Negotiations must take place between A and B to resolve this imbalance: either B will change his attitude towards X, or A and B will quarrel);
• 3) Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. This author replaces the term “contradiction” with “dissonance”.

A person knows that something cannot be done, but he does it anyway—cognitive dissonance arises.

The main tenets of the theory of cognitive dissonance are as follows:

• dissonance may arise between cognitive elements;
• the existence of dissonance causes a desire to reduce it;
• manifestations of this desire: to change behavior; change your knowledge; treat new information carefully (for example, a smoker avoids information about the dangers of smoking or devalues ​​it in order to avoid cognitive dissonance);
• 4) theory of congruence of Osgood, Tannenbaum.

Rice. 4.3.

This theory also takes a triad: R - recipient, K - communicator, O - object, message.

There are times when the attitude towards both the communicator and the idea he preaches changes at the same time.

For the study, the semantic differential technique is used: emotional attitude, strength and activity are assessed on a 7-point scale.

In the course of research, it was found that the attitude towards K (the communicator) changes rather than towards O (the object of the conversation). Thus, it turned out that the attitude towards an object is stronger than the attitude towards a person, i.e. It is easier for a person to break off relationships with loved ones than to change his views.

A summary of various interaction theories is presented in Table. 4.1.

Table 4.1

Theories of Interpersonal Interaction

role theory) - approaches in sociology that emphasize the importance of roles, as well as "role taking" in the formation and maintenance of social order and social organization. See Role.

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ROLE THEORY

a concept that arose to explain the relationship between an individual and society. Formation of T.r. associated with the names of J. Mead, R. Linton, J. (J.) Moreno. In T.r. Three levels of analysis can be distinguished: sociological, where the role is considered primarily as an element of social. structures and cultures; social-psychological level of social the interaction of individuals among themselves, the individual and the group, where the role turns out to be a set of common meanings, without which communication is unthinkable; finally, the role can be considered at the level of the individual as a system. Her research combines the interests of general psychology, social science. psychology and sociology. In this case, the emphasis is on the personal interpretation of the role and the influence of the role on the individual. There are different approaches to T.r. In symbolic interactionism, developed by Mead, society is considered as a system of communication, actions, which are social. insofar as they have a common goal and use common meanings-symbols developed in the process of interaction. The individual is included in the interaction and becomes social. a being to the extent that he learns to “take the role of another,” that is, to master general meanings, anticipate the reaction of another to his actions, puts himself in his place and thereby becomes an object for himself. Role learning begins in childhood, first in unorganized games, then in games according to the rules. The personality of an individual is the unity of two “I”: social, which is the result of mastering different things. roles, internalized attitudes of other people and deep - individual, spontaneous. Remaining in my analysis of the role mainly on the social-psychological. level, Mead, however, introduces the concept of the “generalized “Other”, meaning the collective prescriptions of the group for the behavior of the individual. Linton analyzes roles and statuses based on the sociological view. In the system of society, he identified statuses - positions in the structure of the social. relationships and the associated set of rights and responsibilities. He defines the role as a dynamic aspect of status, without explaining how the role differs from “playing a role.” The main thing for Linton is the understanding of roles as instructions, standards of behavior, and cultural ones coming from society. models. Therefore, the role as a dynamic aspect of status is more correctly understood as its functional, cultural aspect, but in this case it is a set of rights and obligations, the fulfillment of which is expected by society. replaced by the more neutral term “position” as a place in the system of relations; status retained the meaning of rank and prestige. The founder of sociometry, Moreno, considered the roles of Ch. arr. in practice part of his teaching - psychotherapy. The methods of psycho- and sociodrama he developed involved playing dramatic characters. roles, but not prescribed, but freely invented in the course of action. This “teaching spontaneity” was, according to Moreno, supposed to cure individuals from social-psychic. diseases, help resolve life's difficulties. The role is not devoid of social and cultural content, but social. and the individual are merged in it. Moreno emphasizes the conflict between the self and official roles. Large group of social psychologists and sociologists developing TR consists of those who in one way or another gravitate towards one of the three levels of analysis mentioned above. Accordingly, the range of categories with which the authors operate changes. The most significant group includes representatives of social-psychological. approach to role analysis (I. Goffman, T. Newcome, J. Stetzel). Some of them trace the formation of roles from interaction in unorganized groups and their transformation into institutionalized roles that acquire a normative and coercive character. Important categories of T.r. with this approach are “role behavior”, “action in role”, communication, consent. With general sociological t.zr. reviews roles T. Parsons; For him, the interaction of two people is an example of social interaction. interactions on a community scale, and the role is behavior that is normatively regulated on the basis of generally accepted values, a social component. structures. However, the most general concepts of TR. at different levels of analysis are “role”, “role behavior”, “position” (status), “instruction” or “expectation”, requirement." The same principle is implemented by R. Darendorf, emphasizing the impersonal and external to the individual nature of the prescribed role , its normativity. Lit.: Shibutani M., 1969; Role theory: concepts and research. E.M.

What determines whether people will come into contact with each other or not, whether they will continue it or interrupt it?

There are such theories of interpersonal interaction as: exchange theory (J. Homans, P. Blau), symbolic interactionism theory (J. Mead, G. Blumer), impression management theory (E. Goffman), psychoanalytic theory (Z. Freud), etc. .

Exchange theory considers social behavior as the interaction of people who are in continuous processes of material and intangible exchange with each other, which can be explained by provisions based on the psychological theory of behaviorism. According to behaviorism, human behavior is subject to the basic rule: the more often a person’s social action is rewarded, the more often he tends to perform this action. If a person expects a positive, desired result from interaction with another person, if the interlocutor can and does give what is expected, then the contact continues.

If a person understands that he will not receive what he expected, then the contact stops.

Contact- this is a benefit, but it is accompanied by certain costs (how much effort and time must be spent, how much damage can be suffered). Relationships are only stable if a person is confident that the amount of positive benefits from contact is higher than the costs that he may incur. That is, a person is guided by “maximization of gain” (Tibbo, Kayley). Moreover, it is desirable for a person to be convinced that “another person will not benefit from the benefit he brings to you more than yours” (M. Deutsch).

The next position of behaviorists - the position of value - determines that the more valuable it is for an individual to achieve a certain result, the more she will strive to perform an action aimed at achieving it.

The saturation-starvation position determines that the more often a person has received a certain reward in the past, the less valuable a repetition of such a reward will be for him. The aggression-approval position determines that if a person does not receive a reward that he expected, or receives a punishment that he did not expect, then he tends to demonstrate aggressive behavior and the results of such behavior become more valuable to him.

These provisions, as J. Homans believed, explain why a person acts one way or another in any situation, and can also explain all social processes. Thus, a social connection is established and maintained:

1. if it corresponds to personal expediency, the payment does not exceed the remuneration;
2. if mutual consistency and unity of payment and reward criteria for all participants in social interaction are achieved, if a balance of rewards is achieved, mutual efficiency of communication.

If one of the parties is disadvantaged, it will strive to reconsider these ties, regulate them in a new way, and the basis for conflict arises.

To explain asymmetrical relationships, Homans puts forward the principle of least interest, which states that the person who has the least interest in the continuation of a social exchange situation has a greater ability to dictate the terms of the exchange to other participants in the situation. The result of this is the emergence of power, since "one person has a greater ability to reward others in exchange than others can reward him." Therefore, any power relations, even violent ones, are, according to Homans, cases of asymmetrical exchange. Homans uses the principle of distributive justice, according to which any exchange relationship strives to ensure that the rewards of participants are proportional to their costs, which inevitably gives rise to differentiation among people. Consequently, social inequality is natural, fair, and natural, since it reflects the proportions of people’s personal contributions to the social whole.

Power relations arise as special cases of social exchange, when one of the participants in the exchange process has a monopoly right to a certain reward (material or intangible), which the other participants strive to obtain. In this case, he will try to exchange the reward he has as profitably as possible, imposing its will to other participants, which ultimately leads to the formation of a system of ranks, social statuses, social stratification. But in order to establish itself, power must be sanctioned by the remaining participants in the exchange, legitimized on the basis of norms and values ​​based on a certain system of culture, and this system of culture. not related to exchange processes.

Another important theory of interpersonal interaction was proposed by J. Mead - symbolic interactionist theory. People react not only to the actions of other people, but also to their intentions, that is, they “unravel” the intentions of other people, analyzing their actions, as if putting themselves in the place of another person, taking the role of another. From the perspective of symbolic interactionism, interaction between people is seen as a continuous dialogue, during which they observe, comprehend each other's intentions and react to them.

Interactionists emphasize that language, speech, is the main factor in the theory of interpersonal interaction. Language has a symbolic nature, any linguistic symbol (word) is a private meaning that arose as a result of private interaction and has a contractual nature, i.e. people, striving to achieve practical results in cooperation with each other, agreed to accept a certain meaning for a certain word . A similar understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols facilitates interaction and allows one to interpret each other’s behavior. Understanding each other's behavior, people change their own, adapting their actions to the actions of others, coordinating their actions with other people, learning to see themselves through the eyes of the group, learning to take into account the expectations of other people.

Social Expectations- expectations - influence human behavior; he is forced to behave as required by the norms of behavior, as expected by other people and society as a whole, realizing the rights and responsibilities that are inherent in his social role.

Social role- a relatively stable pattern of behavior, including actions, thoughts, feelings, developed in a given society to perform a certain social function, to realize a certain social status.

Social status- this is a set of rights and responsibilities of a person determined by his position in a certain social system and hierarchy of social relations. Social status is associated with a system of social expectations (a person is expected to take certain actions, a person expects others to treat themselves in a certain way). If a person’s behavior diverges from expectations, if he performs his role poorly, then the people around him, the group, apply coercive social sanctions to him: ridicule, boycott, threats, disapproval, punishment, etc.

There are 3 types of role implementation: “ imitation», « execution», « choice" For an early age, “imitation” is inherent - trying on positions, expectations, patterns of behavior of different social roles. “Performance” is the result of the interaction of a person’s social “I” and role expectations. If opposing social demands are placed on a person, a conflict of roles may arise, and then the person “chooses” a role, ignoring other requirements and roles, other groups of people, while the person moves away from people who underestimate him and seeks to get closer to those who appreciates him, with those groups that become significant, important, valuable, referent for him.

In the theory of interactionism, E. Goffman views the interpersonal interaction of people as a kind of theatrical play, where people act out roles and performances, being both a director and an actor, carefully guarding the places of their “private scenes” where they can relax after the performance. This concept of Goffman is called the dramaturgical approach, or the concept of impression management, i.e. people themselves create situations in order to express symbolic meanings with the help of which they make a good impression on others, try to “save their face” if for some reason they made unfavorable impression. Goffman wrote:

“We do not consider as people those who are marked with some kind of shameful stigma,” so people strive to hide their shame at any cost.

Related to symbolic interactionism ethnomethodology(founder - G. Garfinkel). The subject of study in ethnomethodology is the accepted rules governing interaction between people (these rules can determine when it is appropriate to say something, or remain silent, or joke, etc.). These rules may be specific when interacting with people we know very well. If a person violates these rules, then interaction with people becomes very difficult and the consequences can be unpredictable.

Rules and “self-evident provisions, opinions, stocks of knowledge” that people have constitute the basis of the social world, i.e. ideas, values, rules, norms are seen as the center of social life and interaction. Ethnomethodology studies the methods by which people create social order: values, norms, beliefs, but they themselves can change, die, and have their own internal structure. By describing the situation, establishing connections between meanings, clarifying their meaning, people come to the establishment of some rules, come to agreement, to social stability. Social structure is considered as a product of interaction, as a consequence of the relationship between “surface” and “deep” rules, where “surface” rules are the norms of social life, and “deep” interpretative rules are the basis for the emergence and existence of any meanings, the basis of any education and training. (A. Sikurel).

The development of common criteria and standards of behavior of people in relation to each other unites people. T. Parsons called symbolic intermediaries these common criteria that are understandable to everyone, and everyone is ready to use them. Among them he included a system of values, money, law, power, which create the opportunity to regulate social relations on the basis of sociocultural, economic and political criteria. Society, through norms, values, and standards of behavior, seems to establish a certain set of social characteristics that any participant in public life should have, regardless of his individual characteristics. The value system that arose to regulate relations in society as a whole largely subjugates the social mechanisms for regulating interpersonal relations at the micro level.

Psychoanalytic theory 3. Freud proves that in the process of interaction between people, their childhood experiences are reproduced and people unwittingly apply the concepts that they learned in early childhood. If in childhood the child’s reactions of submission, humility, and compliance were dominant, then in the future such a person will prefer to obey and not take responsibility for making important decisions. Freud believed that people form and remain in social groups partly because they feel a sense of loyalty and obedience to the group leaders, unwittingly identifying them with powerful individuals, personified in childhood by their fathers. In such situations, people seem to regress, returning to an earlier stage of development. If people's interactions are initially disorganized and they do not have a clear plan of action, then this helps to strengthen the power of the group leader.

From point of view cognitive approach, a person comes into contact with another person, is aware of this other person, himself and the situation in which the contact takes place, and it is not the stimuli themselves that determine a person’s behavior, but how he perceives them. From the point of view of balance theories (Haider, Newcome), human behavior, his attitude towards any object depends on interpersonal relationships with the interlocutor. Three elements are identified: P - the person through whose eyes the situation is viewed, O - another person (interlocutor), X - the object with which the O-interlocutor is connected. R-O-X - the nature of the relationship. When the P-O-X connections are balanced and these connections are positive, then the psychology of perception is as follows: “I love friend O, and I love this or that X that my friend loves”; or in short: “Friends of my friends are my friends” (Fig. 6 a).

The axioms are also balanced: “The enemies of my friends are my enemies” (Fig. 6 b), or “The enemies of my enemies are my friends” (Fig. 6 c). According to Heider, these structures are in the head of R, i.e., this is perception through the eyes of R. Unbalanced structures (“I don’t love the one my enemy doesn’t love”) are unstable, unviable, so a person strives to balance them. According to Newcomb, dissonance - an unbalanced structure - manifests itself not only in consciousness, but also in attitude and behavior.

For example, the situation: A - husband, B - wife, X - car, and the husband loves the car, but the wife does not (Fig. 7 a). This is dissonance. How to get out of it? (Fig. b, c.)

1. Persuade your wife to “love” the car (Fig. 7 b);
2. stop loving the car yourself (Fig. 7 c); 3) probable outcome: the husband stopped loving his wife (Fig. 7 d)

Thus, dissonant relationships, unless balanced in an acceptable way, are doomed to fail. The nature of the relationship - some subjective experience of direct relationships between people - is subject-subjective in nature, that is, it is not an externally observable action. Relationships develop when both subjects proceed from a feeling of equality of the other, when there is a certain similarity, mutual similarity of partners. Conflicts between people occur when people do not have similarity, mutual understanding, or similarity of interests. Interpersonal interaction can be carried out even in the absence of relationships (for example, passing a ticket on a bus - there is interaction, but there is no relationship).

The theory of roles, or the socio-psychological theory of symbol, interactionism (J. Mead, G. Blumer, E. Goffman, M. Kuhn, etc.) considers personality from the point of view of its social roles. It belongs to sociological concepts, since it asserts that the social environment is a decisive factor in the development of personality and highlights the importance of interpersonal interaction between people (interactions) and role behavior.

Important in Role Theory is the statement that the basic mechanism and structure of personality are associated with the role essence. A personality is considered as a set of its social roles. According to these views, a person in his life, in communication with other people, in his activities never remains “just a person”, but always acts in one role or another, is a bearer of certain social functions and societies. standards. From the point of view of the Theory of Roles, the fulfillment of a role is of great importance in the development of a person’s personality. The development of the psyche, mental activity, and social needs occurs in no other way than in the performance of certain societies, role functions, and the socialization of a person represents the formation of its social roles.

Social roles in Role Theory are considered on three levels: 1) sociologically – as a system of role expectations, i.e., a role model set by society, which is of great importance for the formation of a person’s personality and his mastery of social roles; 2) in the socio-psychological – as the performance of a role and the implementation of interpersonal interaction; 3) psychologically - as an internal or imaginary role, which is not always realized in role behavior, but influences it in a certain way.

The relationship between these three aspects is the role mechanism of the individual. In this case, the leading ones are considered to be social role expectations (expectations) that determine human behavior, for which the concept of interactionism was called “social behaviorism” by its founder, J. Mead. One of the most important concepts of Role Theory is “accepting the role of another,” that is, imagining oneself in the place of an interaction partner and understanding his role behavior. At the same time, a person brings his expectations towards this person in accordance with his social roles. Without such correspondence, interaction cannot arise, and a person cannot become a social being, realize the significance and responsibility of his own actions and actions.

Bibliography

P. P. Ermine. Role theory

Level of development, in some cases with serious defects in upbringing, these are corporate groups.

Western psychology absolutizes the age periods of personality development, building on the basis of each of them special psychological theories of personality: psychoanalytic based on the absolutization of personality development in early childhood, neobehaviorist, social learning theory, ...

...). We adhere to the point of view according to which regional economics is a branch of general economic theory belonging to the section “Mesoeconomics”, that is, we consider the regional economy as part of a large subsystem of the national economy (Macroeconomics). The course is methodologically based on the fundamentals of economic theory and is organically connected with specific economic disciplines...

The leader does not have very much importance in the lives of modern schoolchildren. It is perceived as a necessity. Thus, the modern understanding of the role of the team in the formation of personality differs from that which was developed and justified by representatives of humanistic pedagogy. Conclusion This work is devoted to the study of the role of the team in the formation of personality. Relevance...

Endows the person being tested with the same aspirations as the so-called scientist-psychologist. It is the idea that the psychologist is no different from the subject he is studying that summarizes Kelly's cognitive theory of personality. It confirms Kelly's belief that all people act like scientists in everyday life. For him, the distinction between scientist and non-scientist was unreliable. That, ...(M. Weber, P. Sorokin, T. Parson). Sociologist T. Parson proposed a description of the structure of social action, which includes:

a) activist;

b) “other” (the object to which the action is directed);

c) norms (by which interaction is organized;

d) values ​​(which each participant accepts);

d) the situation (in which the action is performed).

This scheme turned out to be too abstract and therefore unsuitable for empirical analysis.

Social exchange theory (neobehaviorism) J. Homans. Homans believed that people interact with each other based on their experiences, weighing possible rewards and costs. Formulated 4 principles of interaction:

1. The more a certain type of behavior is rewarded, the more often it will be repeated.

2. If the reward for certain types of behavior depends on some conditions, the person strives to recreate these conditions.

3. If the reward is large, a person is willing to expend more effort to obtain it.

4. When a person’s needs are close to saturation, he is less willing to make efforts to satisfy them.

Thus, Homans views social interaction as a complex system of exchanges determined by ways of balancing rewards and costs.

Social bond theory J. Szczepansky. This theory describes the development of interaction. The central concept is that of social connection. It can be represented as a sequential implementation:

a) spatial contact;

b) mental contact (mutual interest);

c) social contact (joint activity);

d) interaction (defined as the systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at eliciting an appropriate reaction from the partner);

d) social relations.

Psychoanalytic theory interactions (S. Freud, K. Horney, G. Sullivan). Z. Freud believed that interpersonal interaction is determined mainly by ideas acquired in early childhood and conflicts experienced during this period of life. The family is the prototype of relationships with the outside world.

K. Horney 3 possible compensating strategies that are developed from childhood and determine the nature of interaction with other people:

Ø movement to people;

Ø movement against people;

Ø movement from people.

Usually all three strategies are used fairly evenly; the predominance of any one may indicate neurosis.

Impression management theory E. Goffman. The theory is based on the assumption that social interaction situations resemble dramatic performances in which people, like actors, strive to create and maintain a favorable impression. In order to manifest and express symbolic meaning, with the help of which one can make a good impression on others, people themselves prepare and create appropriate situations. This concept is also called the theory of social dramaturgy.

Interactionist theory(G. Blumer, J. Mead, C. Cooley, R. Linton, etc.). The key concept is “interaction” - hence the name of the direction within which the theory of symbolic interactionism and role theory were developed.

Symbolic interactionist theory J. Mead, G. Blumer. Any interaction between people is carried out using symbols. Without symbols there can be no human communication or human society, since symbols provide the means by which people can communicate. Blumer formulated 3 main provisions of the theory:

1. human activity is carried out on the basis of the meanings that people attach to objects and events;

2. these meanings are a product of interaction (interaction) between individuals;

3. meanings are the result of the interpretation of the symbols surrounding each individual.

Role theory(T. Sarbin, J. Mead, T. Shibutani). For an interaction to continue, everyone involved must also interpret the intentions of others through “role taking.”

Social role –

1. a set of requirements imposed by society on persons occupying a certain social position;

2. the sum of a person’s expectations in relation to himself - “what I should be”;

3. real behavior of a person in a particular position.

T Shibutani (1969) distinguishes between conventional and interpersonal roles. Conventional roles mean a prescribed pattern of behavior that is expected and required of a person in a given situation. Learning these roles occurs through participation in organized groups. Interpersonal roles determined by the interaction of people with each other.

1) inclusion in interaction;

2) control stage– establishing a hierarchy in relation, the desire to control the situation or, otherwise, to be under the control of another person;

3) intimacy.

Experimental scheme for recording interactions R.F. Bales. Bales developed a scheme that makes it possible to record various types of human interaction according to a single plan. Using the observation method, real manifestations of interaction are recorded in accordance with 4 categories or areas of interaction:

Transactional Analysis Theory E. Berna.

E. Bern (2003) introduced the concept of transaction to denote the functional unit of communication. Transactionrepresents the interaction of two ego states of individuals, where under ego state the actual way of existence of the I – the subject is understood. There are three main egos - states in which a person can be:

1. Ego state Parent manifests itself in a person’s desire to comply with the norms of social control, to implement ideal requirements, prohibitions, dogmas, etc.

2. Ego state Adult reveals itself in a person’s desire to realistically assess the situation and resolve all issues rationally and competently.

3. Ego state Child associated with the emotional experiences of the individual.

Table 3. External manifestations of ego states

Types of transactions:

Additional or parallel:transactions – stimulus and transaction – response do not intersect, but complement each other. There are equal and unequal additional transactions.

Intersecting:transactions – stimulus and transactions – response do not coincide (they are depicted in the diagram as intersecting vectors). It is intersecting transactions that are often the cause or consequence of conflict.

Hidden:those transactions whose meaning is not related to observable behavior; include simultaneously two levels - explicit, verbally expressed (social) and hidden, implied (psychological). Explicit and hidden interaction occurs from different positions. Usually, explicit interaction, open to others present, occurs from the Adult-Adult position; hidden interaction, directed only to the partner, occurs from a different position. Hidden transactions are angular and double.

Standard chains of transactions form games, which is opposed to spontaneous, open communication. Games are played to obtain certain “rewards”: stress relief, praise, time structuring, sympathy, etc. There are 3 types of games: victim, pursuer and deliverer.

In addition to analyzing games, E. Bern considered it important to analyze life scenarios. By script he meant "what a person plans to do in the future"(Bern E., 2003). He called what actually happens the path of life. The basis of a person’s life scenario is his Parental programming. The child accepts it for the following reasons:

1) he receives a ready-made goal in life, which otherwise he would have to choose himself;

2) parental programming gives the child a ready-made option for structuring his time, especially since it will be approved by the parents;

3) the child just needs to be explained how to do certain things and how to behave in certain situations (it’s interesting to find out everything yourself, but it’s very unproductive to learn from your mistakes).

The next step in transactional analysis is analysis. positions, which reflects a person’s attitude to the world in general, to his environment - friends and enemies. Positions can be two-sided or three-sided.

Double sided positions are based on the concepts of “good” (+) and “bad” (-). There are 4 main positions:

1. I (-) – You (+). I am bad, you are good. This is the position with which a person is born. From a psychological point of view, it is depressive, and from a social point of view, it is self-deprecation. In an adult, it can contribute to the emergence of envy towards others. And this position often encourages a child to imitate those around him, learn from them, it can transform over time into three others;

2. I (+) – You (-). I am good, you are bad. This is a point of view of superiority, arrogance, snobbery. It can form in child-centric families, when the child sees that everything is being done for him and for his sake. In transactional theory, this position is interpreted as a dead end: if I am the best, then who should I follow, who should I learn from, whose words should I listen to?

3. I (-) – You (-). I am bad, you are bad. This is an attitude of hopelessness, which may underlie self-aggression and be the cause of suicidal behavior. It is often formed in families at risk, where the child feels abandoned, unwanted, and the parents’ behavior does not correspond to social norms.

4. I (+) – You (+). I am good, you are good. This is the position of a healthy, socially mature person, which reflects a decent life, a positive outlook on the situation, and faith in success.

Tripartite positions include the components I, You and They.

1. I (+), You (+), They (+). In a democratic society, this position can be taken by entire families. It can be considered an ideal. Slogan: “We love everyone!”

2. I (+), You (+), They (-). This position is biased, as a rule, it is occupied by a talker, a snob or a bully. Slogan: “I don’t care about them!”

3. I (+), You (-), They (+). This is the attitude of a dissatisfied person, such as a missionary: “You are not as good as those.”

4. I (+), You (-), They (-). This is the position of a critical person who looks down on everyone: “Everyone must bow before me and be like me.”

5. I (-), You (+), They (+). The position of a self-deprecating person, a saint or a masochist. Slogan: “I am the worst in this world!”

6. I (-), You (+), They (-). The position of a sycophant is when a person does this not out of necessity, but out of snobbery: “I grovel, and the reward awaits me, not those people.”

7. I (-), You (-), They (+). The position of obsequious envy or political action: “They don’t like us because we are worse than them.”

8. I (-), You (-), They (-). The position of pessimists and cynics, those who are sure: “In our time there are no good people.”

Positions are closely related to life scenarios and often influence the nature of games.

Self-test questions:

1. Describe the interaction structure.

2. What socio-psychological phenomena can arise in the process of interaction?

3. What interaction strategies did K. Thomas describe?

4. What are the functions of conflict?

5. What psychoanalytic theories of interaction do you know?

6. List aspects of social role.

7. What ego states did E. Bern identify?

8. Name the types of transactions.

9. What areas of interaction did R. Bales identify?

10. List the principles of social interaction formulated by J. Homans?

Literature:

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., 2000.

2. Andrienko E.V. Social Psychology. - M., 2000.

3. Bern E. Games that people play. People who play games. - M., 2003.

4. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

5. Zimbardo F., Leippe M. Social influence. - St. Petersburg, 2000. 448 p.

6. Krizhanskaya Yu.S., Tretyakov V.P. Grammar of communication. – M., 1990.

7. Kronik A.A., Kronik E.A. Psychology of human relations. - Dubka, 1998.

8. Levin K. Resolution of social conflicts. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

10. Obozov N.N. Interpersonal relationships. - L., 1979.

11. Communication and optimization of joint activities. - M., 1985.

12. Pines E., Maslach K. Workshop on social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

13. Rogov E.I. Psychology of communication. - M., 2002.

14. Stepanov S.S. Living psychology. Lessons from classical experiments. – M., 2004. 191 p.

15. Filatova O.G. Social Psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

16. Chernova G.R. The phenomenon of cruelty (cultural and anthropological aspect). - St. Petersburg, 2005.

17. Shibutani T. Social psychology. - M., 1969.

Chapter 5. Basics of Effective Communication

The concept of communicative competence

The effectiveness of communication is very often correlated with friendly, conflict-free, “soft” interaction between people. This is not entirely true. The effectiveness of communication is determined, first of all, by the extent to which you have achieved your goal. Perhaps you should end your relationship with a person or tell him what you have long wanted, but did not dare; in this case, your communication with him will hardly be called “smooth”. By communicating rudely, without paying attention to his feelings and emotions, you are more likely to achieve your goal. Such communication can also be called effective in terms of achieving the goal set for it.

But still, much more effort has to be spent on establishing constructive communication, understanding your own and your partner’s position, and clearly selecting techniques and methods for conflict-free interaction. Moreover, there are techniques that should be brought to automatism, and then we will feel the real benefits of their use in various communication situations.

Effective communication is usually associated with different approaches to learning:

1. Trait theory (R. Cattell, G. Allport, A.G. Shmelev, etc.) Representatives of this theory identify personal characteristics that promote and hinder interpersonal communication. The first include: sociability, friendliness, tolerance, sincerity, etc. The second - suspicion, isolation, aggressiveness, indifference, etc.

In an objective sense, a trait is a stable disposition of an individual to a certain behavior in a certain wide or narrow class of situations, which has developed during the formation of individual experience based on interacting factors: psychophysiological constitution (temperamental aspect, or trait-properties), social reinforcement of role behavior (characterological aspect or trait-skills), emotional-value appropriation and construction of ideal models and targeted strategies (reflexive-personal aspect or trait-strategy).

In the subjective sense, this is a subjective categorical unit of experience that generalizes for the subject the characteristics of a certain class of situations and instructions for behavior in these situations; This is a personal construct that allows you to quickly solve (due to an abbreviated search of informative features of the situation) the problem of choosing a behavior strategy in the current situation and, at the same time, the task of experiencing the integrity of the “I”.

2. The concept of relationships (A.F. Lazursky, V.N. Myasishchev). Personal relationships become a regulator of behavior. It is the attitude of the individual that explains why the same person is patient with some people and not tolerant with others. A certain system of relationships for each individual person is gradually formed. At the same time, a person's overall positive attitude towards the world is goodwill - the universal key to effective communication. There are three classes of relationships: attitude towards oneself, attitude towards other people and attitude towards the world as a whole.

3. The theory of altruistic egoism (R. Dawkins, G. Selye). Every person subconsciously understands that in interpersonal interactions it is more beneficial for him to be loved. Since it is beneficial, it must be achieved, that is, it must become the goal of behavior.

4. Situational theory (J. Dollard, N. Miller, M. Sheriff). A lot in communication depends on situational factors: weather conditions, number of participants, place of interaction, etc. Numerous experiments confirm the importance of these factors.

5. Cognitive theory (J. Kelly, K. Lewin, L. Festinger). Each person has his own subjective picture of the world, through which the same situation is assessed differently by different people. This significantly influences the behavioral response in an interaction situation. Thus, this approach integrates the concept of relationships and situational theory.

Considering the features of effective communication, we will focus on two concepts that underlie many techniques: communication and sociability. It is important to note that these concepts are not synonymous. Under communicativeness is understood mastery of the procedural side of contact (conscious use of expression, mastery of voice, ability to pause).

Communication skills This is mastery of the social side of contact (compliance with social norms in communication, mastery of complex communication skills, for example, the ability to express sympathy, “fit in” to the conversation.

There is also such a concept as communicative competence, which is interpreted differently by different researchers.

a set of skills and abilities necessary for effective communication(Petrovskaya L.A., 1989).

Communicative competence – situational adaptability and fluency in verbal and non-verbal (speech and non-verbal) means of social behavior(Emelyanov Yu.N., 1985, p. 11).

Measure of communicative competence – degree of success of intended acts of influence and means used to impress others(Emelyanov Yu.N., 1985, p. 10).

E.V. Sidorenko (2003, p. 60) offers the following scheme of communicative competence:

Psychological signals when making contact

Verbal signals conducive to contact:

1. A distinct greeting.

2. Calling a person by name

3. Offer to sit down

Nonverbal signals that encourage contact:

1. Proxemics

Body rotation angle from 45 to 90 degrees (lateral position conveys the message: “I have no aggressive intentions”)

The angle of inclination of the body is less than straight (an obtuse angle between the interlocutors is a failure of negotiations)

The distance between partners corresponds to the specifics of the situation

The ratio of levels in the vertical plane is such that the eyes of the interlocutors are at the same level

2. Poses

Open, not closed (limbs not crossed, head and body turned towards the interlocutor, palms open, muscles relaxed, eye contact)

Asymmetrical rather than symmetrical

3. Facial expressions

Lively, naturally changing facial expressions

4. Sight

Duration of eye contact 3-5 seconds

Contact frequency – at least 1 time per minute

Blinking frequency – once every 3-5 seconds

5. Takeshika– movement of interlocutors in space

not allowed:

Rhythmic movements

Large amplitude movements

Sudden movements

Non-ritualized touching

6. Paralinguistics

Speech clarity

Friendly intonations

Low pitch

Moderate speed of speech.

A.A. Rean (2004) offers several basic rules for positive communication.

1. Speak your partner's language. This rule is both psychological and linguistic in nature. The language of the message must be understandable to all subjects of communication.

2. Show respect to your partner. This rule is the most important principle of constructive communication.

3. Demonstrate commonality. The options are countless - it could be a commonality of interests, goals, tasks, habits (preferably positive), some external characteristics, a name, finally. Interestingly, emphasizing community is not only one of the most important rules, but also the oldest. Let us remember Mowgli’s phrase from Kipling’s famous work: “You and I are of the same blood, you and I!” This sentence contains another important nuance: the address “We”, pay attention, not you are with me, but we are with you.

4. Show interest in your partner’s problems. We understand that most problems are familiar to many people: from a small quarrel between spouses to the death of a loved one. But you should always remember that for a particular person this problem will always be individual, unlike anyone else’s. That is why you need to treat his problem with respect and with great interest, showing that you care.

5. Give your partner opportunities to talk. Very often a person needs to be given the opportunity to speak out by listening carefully. As practice shows, sometimes this is enough to relieve tension.

In order for a person to have the opportunity to speak out, verbalize the problem that is tormenting him, his emotional state, certain techniques of “Active Listening” have been developed in psychology.

Active Listening Techniques

Be the first to listen

and the last one to speak.

EM. Kapiev

One Eastern wisdom says: “Truth is not in the words of the speaker, but in the ears of the listener.” From a psychological point of view, the words listen and hear have completely different meanings. HEARING means physically perceiving sound, and LISTENING is not just directing the ear to something, but focusing on what is perceived, understanding the meaning of the sounds received. It is known that in English the verbs “to hear” and “to listen” are used to denote the corresponding shades.

There is such an instructive legend. A young man came from afar to see Socrates in Athens, burning with the desire to master the art of eloquence. After talking with him for a few minutes, Socrates demanded double payment from him for teaching oratory. "Why?" - asked the surprised student. “Because,” the philosopher answered, “I will have to teach you not only how to speak, but also how to be silent and listen.” This answer, voiced more than two thousand years ago, echoes the opinion of the 20th century writer L. Feuchtwanger, who argued that “a person needs two years to learn to speak, and sixty years to learn to keep his mouth shut” (Panfilova A.P., 2001).

The ability to listen is a necessary condition for correctly understanding your partner’s position.

Active listening presupposes mastery of the skills of self-expression and action and is aimed at formulating and solving communicative problems, while passive listening is a change of state in the process of exposure to communicative stimuli.

Table 4. Active and passive listening techniques

Distracting attention to something else while maintaining a “mask of attention.”

Waiting for the partner to return to the topic of conversation.

Task 2: ability to listen.

Table 5. Voltage regulation techniques.

Difficulties in effective listening.

Disabling attention. Anything that acts unusually or irritates can distract attention.

High speed of mental activity. It is a well-known fact that our thinking is ahead of our speech.

Antipathy to other people's thoughts. As a rule, a person values ​​his own thoughts more; it is easier to track them than to force himself to follow the “train of thoughts” of another.

Selectivity of attention. Often, for the purpose of self-defense (from unnecessary information), our brain involuntarily selects what is of greatest interest to us. Therefore, any person has the habit of transferring his attention from one object (subject) to another.

Need for a replica. Very often the speech of another makes us have a strong desire to interrupt, answer, “interfere” in his speech. In this case, we usually stop listening to the other person.

A recognized master of communication, the famous psychotherapist K. Rogers writes that “The main obstacle in mutual interpersonal communication is our natural desire to evaluate, judge, approve or disapprove...real communication occurs when we listen with attention. This means looking at the ideas and attitudes expressed from the point of view of another person, feeling what it means to him, taking his position regarding what he is talking about” (K. Rogers, 1994).

Related information.