Classical High Middle Ages in Europe. Classical (high) Middle Ages

He signed the Magna Carta, a document limiting royal power and which later became one of the main constitutional acts of England, and in the year the first parliament was convened.

Scandinavia

France and Germany

By the beginning of the High Middle Ages, the Carolingian Empire had split into two separate states, on the territories of which modern Germany and France were later formed. Germany at that time occupied a dominant position within the Holy Roman Empire.

Southern Europe

Eastern Europe

During the first half of the era (-), the Balkans south of the Danube were dominated by the Byzantine Empire, which reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of the Komnenos dynasty. After a year, a crisis arose in the empire: in the year Bulgaria fell away, in the year - Serbia. Back in the century, the church split into Western and Eastern, and in the year the Crusader army captured Constantinople, and Byzantium broke up into a number of smaller states.

Religion

Church



Crusades
1st Crusade
Peasants' Crusade
German Crusade
Norwegian Crusade
Rearguard Crusade
2nd Crusade
3rd Crusade
4th Crusade
Albigensian Crusade
Children's Crusade
5th Crusade
6th Crusade
7th Crusade
The Shepherd Crusades
8th Crusade
9th Crusade
Northern Crusades
Crusades against the Hussites
Crusade against Varna

Crusades

One of the defining features of the High Middle Ages was the crusades organized by Christians to reconquer Palestine from the Seljuks. The Crusades had a powerful influence on all layers of medieval society - from the kings and emperors who led these campaigns to ordinary peasants, whose masters spent many years fighting in the East. The heyday of the idea of the crusades came in the 12th century, when, after the First Crusade, a Christian state, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, was formed in the conquered territories. In the 13th century and later, Christians undertook several crusades against their own Christian brothers, as well as against pagans who professed other, non-Muslim religions.

Scholasticism

Scholasticism (Greek σχολαστικός - scientist, Scholia - “school”) is a systematic European medieval philosophy, concentrated around universities and representing a synthesis of Christian (Catholic) theology and Aristotelian logic.

The rise of monasticism

At the end of the 13th century, the Venetian traveler Marco Polo was one of the first in Europe to travel along the Great Silk Road to China, and upon his return he carefully described what he saw during the journey, opening the world of Asia and the East to Westerners. Even before him, numerous missionaries visited the East - Giovanni Plano Carpini, Guillaume de Rubruck, Andre de Longjumeau, and later Odorico Pordenone, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni Montecorvino - and travelers such as Niccolo Conti.

Technology development

During the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced a sharp rise in technology development and an increase in innovations in the means of production, which contributed to the economic growth of the region. More inventions have been made in less than a century than in the previous thousand years.

The first windmill was built in Yorkshire, England (the earliest documented case).
This year, paper production appeared in Italy.
In the 13th century, the spinning wheel came to Europe (probably from India).
At the end of the 12th century, with the advent of the compass, navigation was greatly simplified.
In the 1280s, spectacles were invented in Italy.
The astrolabe returned to Europe from Muslim Spain.
In the year, through the book Liber Abaci by the Italian mathematician Fibonacci, Europeans learned Arabic numerals.

Culture

Art

Architecture

Literature

Music

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Notes



Prehistoric period

Antiquity

The Russians could not find a better position; but, on the contrary, in their retreat they passed through many positions that were better than Borodino. They did not settle on any of these positions: both because Kutuzov did not want to accept a position that was not chosen by him, and because the demand for a people’s battle had not yet been expressed strongly enough, and because Miloradovich had not yet approached with the militia, and also because other reasons that are innumerable. The fact is that the previous positions were stronger and that the Borodino position (the one on which the battle was fought) is not only not strong, but for some reason is not at all a position any more than any other place in the Russian Empire, which, if you were guessing, you could point to with a pin on the map. The Russians not only did not strengthen the position of the Borodino field to the left at right angles to the road (that is, the place where the battle took place), but never before August 25, 1812, did they think that the battle could take place at this place. This is evidenced, firstly, by the fact that not only on the 25th there were no fortifications at this place, but that, begun on the 25th, they were not finished even on the 26th; secondly, the proof is the position of the Shevardinsky redoubt: the Shevardinsky redoubt, ahead of the position at which the battle was decided, does not make any sense. Why was this redoubt fortified stronger than all other points? And why, defending it on the 24th until late at night, all efforts were exhausted and six thousand people were lost? To observe the enemy, a Cossack patrol was enough. Thirdly, proof that the position in which the battle took place was not foreseen and that the Shevardinsky redoubt was not the forward point of this position is the fact that Barclay de Tolly and Bagration until the 25th were convinced that the Shevardinsky redoubt was the left flank of the position and that Kutuzov himself, in his report, written in the heat of the moment after the battle, calls the Shevardinsky redoubt the left flank of the position. Much later, when reports about the Battle of Borodino were being written in the open, it was (probably to justify the mistakes of the commander-in-chief, who had to be infallible) that unfair and strange testimony was invented that the Shevardinsky redoubt served as a forward post (while it was only a fortified point of the left flank) and as if the Battle of Borodino was accepted by us in a fortified and pre-chosen position, whereas it took place in a completely unexpected and almost unfortified place. The thing, obviously, was like this: the position was chosen along the Kolocha River, which crosses the main road not at a right angle, but at an acute angle, so that the left flank was in Shevardin, the right near the village of Novy and the center in Borodino, at the confluence of the Kolocha and Vo rivers yn. This position, under the cover of the Kolocha River, for an army whose goal is to stop the enemy moving along the Smolensk road to Moscow, is obvious to anyone who looks at the Borodino field, forgetting how the battle took place. Napoleon, having gone to Valuev on the 24th, did not see (as they say in the stories) the position of the Russians from Utitsa to Borodin (he could not see this position, because it did not exist) and did not see the forward post of the Russian army, but stumbled upon the Russian rearguard in pursuit to the left flank of the Russian position, to the Shevardinsky redoubt, and, unexpectedly for the Russians, transferred troops through Kolocha. And the Russians, not having had time to engage in a general battle, retreated with their left wing from the position they had intended to occupy, and took up a new position, which was not foreseen and not fortified. Having moved to the left side of Kolocha, to the left of the road, Napoleon moved the entire future battle from right to left (from the Russian side) and transferred it to the field between Utitsa, Semenovsky and Borodin (to this field, which has nothing more advantageous for the position than any another field in Russia), and on this field the entire battle took place on the 26th. In rough form, the plan for the proposed battle and the battle that took place will be as follows: If Napoleon had not left on the evening of the 24th for Kolocha and had not ordered an attack on the redoubt immediately in the evening, but had launched an attack the next day in the morning, then no one would have doubted that the Shevardinsky redoubt was the left flank of our position; and the battle would take place as we expected. In this case, we would probably defend the Shevardinsky redoubt, our left flank, even more stubbornly; Napoleon would have been attacked in the center or on the right, and on the 24th a general battle would have taken place in the position that was fortified and foreseen. But since the attack on our left flank took place in the evening, following the retreat of our rearguard, that is, immediately after the battle of Gridneva, and since the Russian military leaders did not want or did not have time to start a general battle on the same evening of the 24th, Borodinsky’s first and main action The battle was lost on the 24th and, obviously, led to the loss of the one fought on the 26th. After the loss of the Shevardinsky redoubt, by the morning of the 25th we found ourselves without a position on the left flank and were forced to bend back our left wing and hastily strengthen it anywhere. But not only did the Russian troops stand only under the protection of weak, unfinished fortifications on August 26, but the disadvantage of this situation was increased by the fact that the Russian military leaders did not recognize the completely accomplished fact (the loss of position on the left flank and the transfer of the entire future battlefield from right to left ), remained in their extended position from the village of Novy to Utitsa and, as a result, had to move their troops during the battle from right to left. Thus, during the entire battle, the Russians had twice as weak forces against the entire French army directed at our left wing. (Poniatowski’s actions against Utitsa and Uvarov on the French right flank were actions separate from the course of the battle.) So, the Battle of Borodino did not happen at all as they describe it (trying to hide the mistakes of our military leaders and, as a result, diminishing the glory of the Russian army and people). The Battle of Borodino did not take place in a chosen and fortified position with forces that were somewhat weaker on the Russian side, but the Battle of Borodino, due to the loss of the Shevardinsky redoubt, was accepted by the Russians in an open, almost unfortified area with forces twice as weak against the French, that is, in such conditions in which it was not only unthinkable to fight for ten hours and make the battle indecisive, but it was unthinkable to keep the army from complete defeat and flight for three hours. On the morning of the 25th, Pierre left Mozhaisk. On the descent from the huge steep and crooked mountain leading out of the city, past the cathedral standing on the mountain to the right, in which a service was going on and the gospel was being preached, Pierre got out of the carriage and went on foot. Behind him, some cavalry regiment with singers in front was descending onto the mountain. A train of carts with those wounded in yesterday's case was rising towards him. The peasant drivers, shouting at the horses and lashing them with whips, ran from one side to the other. The carts, on which three or four wounded soldiers lay and sat, jumped over the stones thrown in the form of a pavement on a steep slope. The wounded, tied with rags, pale, with pursed lips and frowning brows, holding onto the beds, jumped and pushed in the carts. Everyone looked at Pierre's white hat and green tailcoat with almost naive childish curiosity. Pierre's coachman angrily shouted at the convoy of wounded to keep them together. A cavalry regiment, singing, descending from the mountain, approached Pierre's droshky and blocked the road. Pierre stopped, pressing himself against the edge of the road dug into the mountain. Because of the slope of the mountain, the sun did not reach the deepening of the road, it was cold and damp here; It was a bright August morning above Pierre's head, and the ringing of bells resounded cheerfully. One cart with the wounded stopped at the edge of the road near Pierre himself. The driver in bast shoes, out of breath, ran up to his cart, slipped a stone under the rear tireless wheels and began to straighten the harness on his little horse. One wounded old soldier with a bandaged arm, walking behind the cart, took hold of it with his good hand and looked back at Pierre. - Well, fellow countryman, they’ll put us here, or what? Ali to Moscow? - he said. Pierre was so lost in thought that he did not hear the question. He looked first at the cavalry regiment that had now met the train of wounded, then at the cart where he stood and on which two wounded were sitting and one was lying, and it seemed to him that here, in them, lay the solution to the question that was occupying him. One of the soldiers sitting on the cart was probably wounded in the cheek. His whole head was tied with rags, and one cheek was swollen as big as a child's head. His mouth and nose were on one side. This soldier looked at the cathedral and crossed himself. The other, a young boy, a recruit, fair-haired and white, as if completely without blood in his thin face, looked at Pierre with a fixed, kind smile; the third lay face down, and his face was not visible. The choir cavalrymen passed right over the cart.

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Books

Christian Church in the High Middle Ages. Tutorial , . The textbook, prepared by leading MPGU teachers I. A. Dvoretskaya and N. V. Simonova, includes fragments of sources on the history of the Christian Church in the High Middle Ages.…

The Romanesque style was replaced by a new style, the Gothic, as cities flourished and social relations improved. Religious and secular buildings, sculpture, colored glass, illuminated manuscripts, and other works of fine art began to be executed in this style in Europe during the second half of the Middle Ages. A further cultural stimulus was the growth of cities, centers of trade and crafts. A new phenomenon was urban culture, which gave rise to the Romanesque style. The Romanesque style arose as a strengthening of the authority of the Roman Empire, necessary for royalty and the church. The Romanesque style was best personified by large cathedrals located on hills, as if towering above everything earthly. In their architecture, powerful structures and rational structure, figurative conventions and sophisticated ornamentation are striking.

The attributes of architectural structures made in the Romanesque style are round arches and basilicas, organically connected with towers. Along with the “animal style,” images of humans in biblical scenes are spreading.

Multi-figure sculptural compositions represented the “stone bible” and scenes of the Last Judgment. One of the purposes of Romanesque cathedrals was to intimidate believers. On the portal of one of the cathedrals in France there is an inscription: “Let fear strike here all who are entangled in earthly vices, for their fate is revealed in the horror of these figures!”

In the Middle Ages, architecture occupied a leading place in art. This was caused, first of all, by the urgent need for the construction of temples. The architect had to combine an artist and a highly educated engineer, geometer, and mathematician. Architects were highly respected and highly valued. Outstanding architects, as well as scientists, theologians and philosophers, were called “stone doctors.”

The Gothic style rejects the ponderous, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were pointed arches and slender towers rising to the sky. Gothic cathedrals are grandiose structures. Thus, the length of the Reims Cathedral is 138 meters and the height is about forty meters. The vertical composition of the building, the rapid upward thrust of the pointed arches and other architectural structures expressed the desire for God and the dream of a higher life.

Famous Gothic cathedrals still amaze people today; among them, Notre Dame Cathedral, the cathedrals of Reims, Chartres, Lmien, and Saint-Denis are especially famous.

N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) wrote: “Gothic architecture is a phenomenon that has never before been produced by the taste and imagination of man. It contains together: this slender and towering forest of vaults, huge, narrow windows, with countless changes and frames, joined to this terrifying colossality of the masses of the smallest, colorful decorations, this light web of carvings entangling it with its own, entwining it from the foot to the end of the spitz and flying away into the sky with it; grandeur and at the same time beauty, luxury and simplicity, heaviness and lightness - these are virtues that architecture has never, except for this time, contained. Entering the sacred darkness of this temple, it is very natural to feel the involuntary horror of the presence of a shrine that the daring mind of a person does not dare to touch.”

Gothic architecture was a single whole with sculpture, painting, and applied arts subordinate to it.

Particular emphasis was placed on the numerous statues. The proportions of the statues were greatly elongated, the expressions on their faces were spiritual, and their poses were noble.

Gothic cathedrals were intended not only for worship, but also for public meetings, holidays, and theatrical performances. The Gothic style extends to all areas of human life. This is how shoes with curved toes and cone-shaped hats become fashionable in clothing.

Geometry and arithmetic were understood abstractly, through the prism of knowledge of God, who created the world and arranged everything “by measure, number and weight.” The mathematical and physical knowledge required to create grandiose structures had to be of a high level. High practical skills, considerable experience and intuition were also required.

An understanding of the significance of technology is evidenced by the fact that on the reliefs of the facades of Gothic cathedrals an allegorical figure is depicted with attributes symbolizing geometry - a compass, a ruler and a square. The architects were convinced that art without science is “nothing.” The more precise knowledge was required to create an architectural structure, the more it was valued. Artistically, the architects adhered, first of all, to harmony and correct proportions.

Gothic art arose in France around 1140, spread throughout Europe over the next century, and continued to exist in Western Europe throughout much of the 15th century, and in some regions of Europe into the 16th century.

The word Gothic was originally used by writers of the Italian Renaissance as a derogatory label for all forms of architecture and art of the Middle Ages, which were considered comparable only to the works of the barbarian Goths. Later use of the term "Gothic" was limited to the period of the late, high or classical Middle Ages, immediately following the Romanesque.

Currently, the Gothic period is considered one of the outstanding periods in the history of European artistic culture.

The main representative and exponent of the Gothic period was architecture. Although a huge number of Gothic monuments were secular, the Gothic style served primarily the church, the most powerful builder in the Middle Ages, who ensured the development of this new architecture for that time and achieved its fullest realization.

The aesthetic quality of Gothic architecture depends on its structural development: ribbed vaults became a characteristic feature of the Gothic style.

Medieval churches had powerful stone vaults that were very heavy. They tried to open up and push out the walls. This could lead to the collapse of buildings.

Therefore, the walls must be thick and heavy enough to support such vaults. At the beginning of the 12th century, masons developed ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches located diagonally, transversely and longitudinally. The new vault, which was thinner, lighter and more versatile (since it could have many sides), made it possible to solve many architectural problems. Although early Gothic churches allowed for wide variation in form, the construction of a series of great cathedrals in northern France, beginning in the second half of the 12th century, took full advantage of the new Gothic vault. Cathedral architects have discovered that external thrust forces from vaults are now concentrated in narrow areas at the joints of the ribs, and can therefore be easily counteracted by buttresses and external buttresses. Consequently, the thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be replaced by thinner ones that included extensive window openings, and the interiors received illumination hitherto unparalleled. Therefore, a real revolution took place in the construction business.

With the advent of the Gothic vault, both the design, shape, and layout and interiors of cathedrals changed. Gothic cathedrals acquired a general character of lightness, upward aspiration, and became much more dynamic and expressive. The first of the great cathedrals was Notre Dame (begun in 1163).

In 1194, the cathedral of Chartres was founded, which is considered the beginning of the High Gothic period. The culmination of this era was the Cathedral of Reims (begun in 1210). Rather cold and all-conquering in its finely balanced proportions, Reims Cathedral represents a moment of classical peace and serenity in the evolution of Gothic cathedrals. Openwork partitions, a characteristic feature of late Gothic architecture, were the invention of the first architect of Reims Cathedral. Fundamentally new interior solutions were found by the author of the cathedral in Bourges (begun in 1195). The influence of French Gothic quickly spread throughout Europe: Spain, Germany, England. In Italy it was not so strong.

Sculpture. Following Romanesque traditions, in numerous niches on the facades of French Gothic cathedrals, a huge number of figures carved from stone were placed as decorations, personifying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church.

Gothic sculpture in the 12th and early 13th centuries was predominantly architectural in nature. The largest and most important figures were placed in the openings on both sides of the entrance. Because they were attached to columns, they were known as column statues. Along with columnar statues, monumental statues standing in victory were widespread, an art form unknown in Western Europe since Roman times. The earliest that have come down to us are the column statues in the western portal of Chartres Cathedral. They were still in the old pre-Gothic cathedral and date back to around 1155. The slender, cylindrical figures follow the shape of the columns to which they were attached. They are executed in a cold, austere linear Romanesque style, which nevertheless gives the figures an impressive character of purposeful spirituality.

From 1180, Romanesque stylization began to transition into a new one, when the statues acquired a sense of grace, sinuousness and freedom of movement. This so-called classical style culminates in the first decades of the 13th century in the large series of sculptures on the portals of the north and south transepts of Chartres Cathedral.

The emergence of naturalism. Beginning around 1210 on the Coronation Portal of Notre Dame Cathedral and after 1225 on the West Portal of Amiens Cathedral, the ripple effect of classical surface design begins to give way to more formal volumes. The statues of Reims Cathedral and the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle Cathedral have exaggerated smiles, emphatically almond-shaped eyes, curls arranged in bunches on small heads and mannered poses that produce a paradoxical impression of a synthesis of naturalistic forms, delicate affectation and subtle spirituality.

Geometry and other exact sciences are making their way into other arts.

Thus, Vietelo in the 13th century introduced the concept of perspective (developed earlier by the Arab scientist Alhazen) in line with the theory of visual perception, isometric and physical optics. In the 13th century, majestic Gothic cathedrals were erected. In architectural structures, size, proportionality, brilliance, luminosity, and precious decorations were valued. Great importance in the aesthetic design of churches was attached to internal decorations: inlays, paintings, stained glass windows.

The architects themselves looked at their own creativity through the prism of philosophical and religious ideas.

They considered the talent of an artist to be a gift from God. In the early Middle Ages, inspiration was considered to be a direct transmission of the divine creative spirit to man. Already in the 12th century, human inspiration was considered an analogue of the divine. It was believed that the artist was characterized by all seven blessings given by the Holy Spirit to the human soul: wisdom, understanding, receptivity to advice, spiritual strength, knowledge, piety, fear of God. The artist, expressing the holy spirit in his work, approached God and came to know God. The artist felt that he took his place in the divine hierarchy and at the same time realized the significance and value of his work for people.

The purpose of art was thought to be that it elevates the human soul, enriches it with divine images, deep experiences, and facilitates the understanding of the divine world order. Art is designed to satisfy those human needs that nature cannot satisfy. Medieval art was essentially esoteric. Behind the external form, medieval people saw deep meaning and higher meaning.

A work of art was the result of the artist's intellect and soul; it reflected his knowledge and worldview. Symbolic and esoteric integrity was achieved in the Gothic cathedral. Every detail in the cathedral had a special meaning. The side walls symbolized the Old and New Testaments. The pillars and columns personified the apostles and prophets carrying the vault, the portals - the threshold of heaven. The dazzling interior of the Gothic cathedral personified a heavenly paradise.

Stained glass windows receive a special symbolic meaning: the light penetrating through them personified unearthly existence. The effects of light and the play of precious stones are often interpreted mystically, as the light of Christian teaching, as a symbol of divine power, or as magical power. Contemplation of light and being in the light atmosphere of stained glass windows leads to a mystical understanding of God.

A specific phenomenon of medieval culture was the creativity of vagans (from the Latin “vagari” - to wander). Itinerant students moved from country to country, from city to city. They composed freedom-loving, bold poems that castigated the vices of society. The style of the poetic form was formed as a reworking of the Latin style and the style of ancient poets. Early Christianity inherited from antiquity an admiration for the products of creativity and contempt for the people who created them.

But gradually, under the influence of Christian ideas about the beneficial, elevating significance of work, this attitude changed. In the monasteries of that time, it was prescribed to combine activities leading to communication with God, to penetration into his essence, such as divine reading, prayers, and manual labor.

It was in the monasteries that many crafts and arts were developed. Art was considered a godly and noble activity; it was practiced not only by ordinary monks, but also by the highest church elite.

Medieval arts: painting, architecture, jewelry - were founded within the walls of monasteries, under the shadow of the Christian church.

In the 12th century, interest in art increased significantly. This is due to the general technical, economic and scientific progress of society. The practical activity of man, his intelligence, and the ability to invent new things are beginning to be valued much higher than before.

The accumulated knowledge begins to be systematized into a hierarchy, at the top of which God continues to remain. Art that combines high practical skills and reflection of images of sacred tradition receives a special status in medieval culture.

The purpose of fine art is that it allows illiterate people to become familiar with sacred history, to perpetuate sacred events and to decorate the interiors of cathedrals with stained glass windows, paintings, and inlays.

The High Middle Ages is one of the defining periods in human history. In those distant and dark times, modern civilization was formed. Ancient foundations disappeared and new ones appeared. The population has increased significantly. A cultural revolution has occurred.

Tribes united into peoples who were then destined to create modern European countries. is still the subject of research by historians.

Historical events

The High Middle Ages began with large-scale conquests. The states of the ancient world sank into oblivion, and in their place many new ones appeared. In the eleventh century the conquest of Britain began. Before this, it was controlled by various pagan tribes. The Normans were the first to land in England. The local Britons offered them fierce resistance. But primitive weapons could not defeat steel and iron. Within a few years, England and almost all of Ireland were mastered. Then the conquerors subjugated Scotland.

Northern Europe has also seen major changes. The ancient Viking way of life was destroyed. The population adopted Christianity. The Scandinavian kingdoms were united into one state. The development of the Baltic states began. However, by the thirteenth century, the single power had split into several principalities. Similar processes occurred in the territory of modern Germany and France. The birth of dynasties began, which sat on the thrones for the next centuries

Slavs

The High Middle Ages turned out to be a favorable period for the development of the ancient Russian state. At that time it was one of the largest in the world. Culture and crafts were superior to European ones. This is due to the earlier ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs, who in the fifth century stopped leading a tribal way of life and united into one Russian people. The same processes took place in the Balkans. However, the natural development was prevented by an unprecedented invasion of underdeveloped nomadic tribes - the Mongols. The weakening of the central government prevented the Russian princes from uniting and they all fell under the onslaught of the horde. After this, the process of development of culture, architecture and crafts was greatly slowed down.

Development of Christian culture

The High Middle Ages were characterized by the complete victory of Christianity in Europe. Even in an earlier period, many influential countries switched to monotheism. However, by the eleventh century, ancient pagan beliefs were still strong. In Britain and Scandinavia, the population converted extremely slowly to the new faith. The isolation of these regions contributed to this. The lack of land connections with the mainland made migration extremely problematic.

However, this factor helped to avoid invasions by nomads who, due to their underdevelopment, could not build ships in sufficient quantities.

The new faith had a decisive influence on culture. From now on, strict prohibitions and moral principles appeared, according to which one had to live. Most of all, the lives of Europeans were influenced by changes in the institution of family. By the beginning of this historical period, stable polygamous relationships remained in many places (especially in Scandinavia). Christianity forbade this. The institution of marriage has led to a change in the role of women in society. Solid patriarchal principles determined family relationships. The family itself, consisting of husband, wife and children, destroyed family ties. Power structures in the form of the church had a high influence on the daily life of the population.

Cultural change: development of a hierarchical system

The culture of the High Middle Ages predetermined the division of the people into classes and castes. The castes of rulers, military, clergy, peasants, and slaves were clearly distinguished. The poor and uneducated population has developed a culture of awareness and rethinking of personal freedom. Governance systems are changing in many countries. England and the Holy Roman Empire had their own parliaments. The privileged class had its own traditions and rituals. But similar phenomena occurred in early historical periods. The culture of the High Middle Ages was seriously influenced by scholasticism.

And its guardians were precisely a new class - the clergy.

Painting

In the fine arts, painting received the greatest development. From now on, several directions and methods of painting were clearly distinguished. The Romanesque period of the High Middle Ages was characterized by weak development of painting. This type of art was assigned the role of painting, that is, auxiliary processing of temple walls. But by the beginning of the thirteenth century, attitudes towards artists had changed. Orders of painters were created in France. They decorated thrones in churches and created panels, frescoes, and icons.

Artists began to systematize their skills. New techniques have appeared. For example, the concept of depth and perspective. Giving objects volume and reality became the most difficult task for medieval masters. They never managed to fully master the skill of depth. This contributed to the creation of a generally accepted style that would later be called Gothic. Painting and icon painting gradually replaced frescoes. This type of art was extremely difficult and long. In addition, the creation of one small mural required significant resources. And many orders professing humility and living in poverty simply could not afford this.

Sculpture

The High Middle Ages in Western Europe was marked by dramatic changes in sculpture. While others developed relatively smoothly, sculpture received a real breakthrough. The main motif was biblical scenes. There was a high concentration of sculptors in the territory of modern Italy. The famous sculptures that appeared during the Renaissance were direct successors

During the Romanesque period, bronze and copper products appeared. For example, the doors to Hildesheim Cathedral.

Methods

For the first time, new materials were used for carving. Wood carving has been rethought in Germany. However, due to the specific properties of wood, these works of art have practically not survived to this day. Also, the Germanic peoples were famous for the production of large-scale triumphal arches. They were in a Romanesque style, but with a strong Gothic overtone. In many cities of modern Germany, these works of art still attract tourists.

The concept of relief on sarcophagi and tombs appeared only at the beginning of the twelfth century. In a short time, this processing method has become extremely popular in Western Europe. In all works the spirit of that era was particularly sharply felt. Mysticism and dreaminess, awareness of the frailty and finitude of existence. Of course, this is due to the fact that the High Middle Ages were dominated by scholastic philosophy.

Cultural revolution and early humanism

The early periods of the Middle Ages are usually called “dark”. Religious persecution, insane rulers, wild laws, etc. left a serious mark on the history of mankind. But by the thirteenth century, the old way of life was completely rethought. The huge increase in population allowed the emergence of large cities in every region. Aesthetic forms of entertainment were extremely popular in cities. One of these was the theater. Already by the beginning of the tenth century, small pantomimes were staged at services. Then it grew into a separate art form. The theater began to touch upon everyday themes, thus moving away from Gothic and scholasticism.

The first works appeared on the topic of the value of human life. Philosophers allowed in their reasoning to move away from the scholastic predetermination of existence. More attention has been paid to the role of human choice. These were the first beginnings of humanism. Urban culture was most susceptible to such trends. Personal development has replaced humility and submission.

Architecture

The High Middle Ages in Western Europe was marked by a new Gothic style in architecture.

At that time, temples and churches were the center of knowledge. And any type is inextricably linked with godly motives. After the end of the Romanism era, new methods of stone processing, geometric solutions, and construction tools were invented. The role of the urban sector in economic life is increasing. Workshops and communities of freemasons appeared. The High Middle Ages are the best symbols of the era.

The pomp and scale of construction surprise modern researchers. The construction of the cathedral could take more than a hundred years. And near construction sites, unique workers’ communes appeared, which actually regulated their social life themselves.

Various styles

A classic feature of Gothic architecture is the presence of two elongated towers. Bell towers could be located both inside them and between them. The western façade was lavishly decorated. The entrance was supported by columns. After the development of the frame method, they were only an element of decoration. The classic Gothic style is considered to be the French model. The cathedrals of the High Middle Ages in Germany were distinguished by strict adherence to proportions. There was noticeable perfectionism in the design of the façade.

In Central Europe, the so-called brick Gothic style prevailed. Brick cathedrals bore similarities to the architecture of the Romanesque period. They were installed in squares of large cities. Huge round towers were a distinctive feature. The Cathedral of St. Barbara and the Church of St. James are classic examples of Czech architecture. Dutch Gothic was distinguished by the construction of temples with one high spire tower.

The vaults were made of wood, which introduced a romantic and even earlier atmosphere.

Western European culture of the High Middle Ages

For the first time since the Roman Empire, science began to influence Europe. The development of medicine, geometry, philosophy and other sciences led to transformation into separate branches. The control of the church was too great, so scientists were forced to obey the bulls of the Pope. But at the same time, the ascetic worldview was called into question.

A new feudal culture appeared among the people. Huge closed-cycle farms have emerged. The land was owned by the lord. The feudal lords ruled as governors. The peasants were completely dependent on them. They did not take any part in economic life and could not influence political decisions. Nevertheless, the development of trade relations allowed “ordinary” people to break into elite society.

Institutions of courts appeared in France, England and some areas of Spain. Some pluralism was also allowed among the royal advisers.

Conclusion

The High Middle Ages in Europe had a unique culture and way of life. The development of feudalism affected social relations. Church control began to weaken. If the early High Middle Ages was characterized by a complete lack of development of new trends in art, then by the thirteenth century more than a dozen such trends appeared. Painting and especially architecture had a decisive influence on the figures of the subsequent Renaissance. Population growth has led to the penetration of culture into the poorest strata.

MIDDLE AGES

Early Middle Ages

(from 500 to 1000)

It begins with the fall of the Great Roman Empire (476) and lasts about 5 centuries. This is the time of the so-called Great Migration, which began in the 4th century and ended in the 7th. During this time, Germanic tribes captured and subjugated all the countries of Western Europe, thus determining the appearance of the modern European world. The main reasons for mass migration during this period of the Middle Ages were the search for fertile lands and favorable conditions, as well as a sharp cooling in the climate. Therefore, the northern tribes moved closer to the south. In addition to the Germanic tribes, Turks, Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes took part in the resettlement. The Great Migration of Peoples was accompanied by the destruction of many tribes and nomadic peoples.

Viking tribes appeared, the kingdoms of the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Aquitaine and the Iberian Peninsula arose, and the Frankish state was formed, which occupied most of Europe during its heyday. North Africa and Spain became part of the Arab Caliphate, there were many small states of the Angles, Saxons and Celts in the British Isles, states appeared in Scandinavia, as well as in central and eastern Europe: Great Moravia and the Old Russian state. The Europeans' neighbors were the Byzantines, the population of ancient Russian principalities and Muslim Arabs. Residents of Europe maintained different relations with neighboring countries and states. The Arab states and Byzantium had the greatest influence on all aspects of life in European countries.

Medieval society in Western Europe was agrarian. The basis of the economy was agriculture, and the vast majority of the population was employed in this area. Labor in agriculture, as in other branches of production, was manual, which predetermined its low efficiency and generally slow pace of technical and economic evolution.

The vast majority of the population of Western Europe lived outside the city throughout the Middle Ages. If for ancient Europe cities were very important - they were independent centers of life, the nature of which was predominantly municipal, and a person’s belonging to a city determined his civil rights, then in Medieval Europe, especially in the first seven centuries, the role of cities was insignificant, although over time Over time, the influence of cities is increasing.

The early Middle Ages in Europe were characterized by constant wars. The barbarian tribes, having destroyed the Roman Empire, began to create their own states of the Angles, Franks and others. They fought fierce wars with each other over territory. In 800, Charlemagne managed, at the cost of numerous campaigns of conquest, to subjugate many nations and create the Frankish Empire. Having disintegrated after the death of Charles 43 years later, it was recreated again in the 10th century by the German kings.

During the Middle Ages, the formation of Western European civilization began, developing with greater dynamism than all previous civilizations, which was determined by a number of historical factors (the legacy of Roman material and spiritual culture, the existence in Europe of the empires of Charlemagne and Otto I, which united many tribes and countries, the influence of Christianity as a common religion for all, the role of corporatism permeating all spheres of the social order).

The basis of the economy of the Middle Ages was agriculture, in which most of the population was employed. The peasants cultivated both their land plots and the master's. More precisely, the peasants had nothing of their own; they were distinguished from slaves only by their personal freedom.

By the end of the first period of the Middle Ages, all peasants (both personally dependent and personally free) had an owner. Feudal law did not recognize simply free people, independent of anyone, trying to build social relations according to the principle: “There is no man without a master.”

During the formation of medieval society, the pace of development was slow. Although three-field instead of two-field had already become fully established in agriculture, the yield was low. They kept mainly small livestock - goats, sheep, pigs, and there were few horses and cows. The level of specialization in agriculture was low. Each estate had almost all vitally important, from the point of view of Western Europeans, branches of the economy: field cultivation, cattle breeding, various crafts. The economy was subsistence, and agricultural products were not produced specifically for the market; the craft also existed in the form of custom work. The domestic market was thus very limited.

During the early Middle Ages - the beginning of the formation of medieval society - the territory in which the formation of Western European civilization took place expanded significantly: if the basis of ancient civilization was Ancient Greece and Rome, then medieval civilization already covered almost all of Europe. The most important process in the early Middle Ages in the socio-economic sphere was the formation of feudal relations, the core of which was the formation of feudal ownership of land. This happened in two ways. The first way is through the peasant community. The plot of land owned by a peasant family was inherited from father to son (and from the 6th century to daughter) and was their property. This is how the allod was gradually formalized - the freely alienable land property of communal peasants. Allod accelerated the stratification of property among free peasants: lands began to be concentrated in the hands of the communal elite, which was already acting as part of the feudal class. Thus, this was the way of forming the patrimonial-allodial form of feudal ownership of land, especially characteristic of the Germanic tribes.

During the early Middle Ages, feudal fragmentation was observed in Europe. Then the role of Christianity in the creation of a united Europe increases.

Medieval cities

They arose primarily in places of busy trade. In Europe it was Italy and France. Cities appeared here already in the 9th century. The time of appearance of the remaining cities refers to

Beginning in the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced a sharp rise in technology development and an increase in the number of innovations in the means of production, which contributed to the economic growth of the region. More inventions have been made in less than a century than in the previous thousand years.

Guns, glasses, and artesian wells were invented. Gunpowder, silk, compass and astrolabe came from the East. There were also great advances in shipbuilding and watches. At the same time, huge numbers of Greek and Arabic works on medicine and science were translated and distributed throughout Europe

At that time, science and culture began to develop. The most progressive rulers also understood the value of education and science. For example, back in the 8th century, on the orders of Charlemagne, an Academy was formed that bears his name.

Among the sciences: astronomy. In the Middle Ages, it was closely connected with astrology. The geocentric concept of Ptolemy was taken as the basis for the world, although many scientists by that time were already convinced of its fallacy. But Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to openly criticize; Chemistry: In the Middle Ages it was called alchemy. Alchemical scientists were searching for the philosopher's stone, which bestows wisdom, and a way to create gold from other metals. In the process of these searches, a huge number of important inventions and others were made.

In Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries, the Romanesque style predominates. He expressed himself most fully in architecture.

Classical (high) Middle Ages

(1000 to 1300)

The main characteristic trend of this period was the rapid increase in the population of Europe, which in turn led to dramatic changes in social, political and other spheres of life.

In the XI–XV centuries. in Europe there is a process of gradual formation of centralized states - England, France, Portugal, Spain, Holland, etc., where new forms of government arise - the Cortes (Spain), parliament (England), Estates General (France). The strengthening of centralized power contributed to more successful development of the economy, science, culture, and the emergence of a new form of organization of production - manufacturing. In Europe, capitalist relations are emerging and strengthening, which was greatly facilitated by the Great Geographical Discoveries.

During the High Middle Ages, Europe began to actively prosper. The arrival of Christianity in Scandinavia. The collapse of the Carolingian Empire into two separate states, on the territories of which modern Germany and France were later formed. Christians organized crusades to conquer Palestine from the Seljuks. Cities are developing and becoming richer. Culture is developing very actively. New styles and trends in architecture and music are emerging.

In Eastern Europe, the era of the High Middle Ages was marked by the rise of the Old Russian state and the appearance of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the historical stage. The Mongol invasion in the 13th century caused irreparable damage to the development of Eastern Europe. Many states in this region were plundered and enslaved.

The Western European Middle Ages was a period of dominance of subsistence farming and weak development of commodity-money relations. The insignificant level of regional specialization associated with this type of economy determined the development of mainly long-distance (external) rather than short-range (internal) trade. Long-distance trade was aimed mainly at the upper strata of society. Industry during this period existed in the form of crafts and manufacturing.

Medieval society is class-based. There were three main classes: the nobility, the clergy and the people (peasants, artisans, and merchants were united under this concept). Estates had different rights and responsibilities and played different socio-political and economic roles.

The most important characteristic of medieval Western European society was its hierarchical structure, the system of vassalage. At the head of the feudal hierarchy was the king - the supreme overlord and, at the same time, often only the nominal head of state. This conditionality of the absolute power of the highest person in the states of Western Europe is also an essential feature of Western European society, in contrast to the truly absolute monarchies of the East. Thus, the king in medieval Europe was merely “first among equals,” and not an all-powerful despot. It is characteristic that the king, occupying the first step of the hierarchical ladder in his state, could well be a vassal of another king or the Pope.

On the second rung of the feudal ladder were the king's direct vassals. These were large feudal lords - dukes, counts, archbishops, bishops, abbots. According to the immunity certificate received from the king, they had various types of immunity (from the Latin - immunity). The most common types of immunity were tax, judicial and administrative, i.e. the owners of the immunity certificates themselves collected taxes from their peasants and townspeople, held court, and made administrative decisions. Feudal lords of this level could mint their own coins, which often circulated not only within a given estate, but also outside it. The submission of such feudal lords to the king was often simply formal.

On the third rung of the feudal ladder stood the vassals of dukes, counts, and bishops - the barons. They enjoyed virtual immunity on their estates. Even lower were the vassals of the barons - the knights. Some of them could also have their own vassals - even smaller knights, others had only peasants under their subordination, who, however, stood outside the feudal ladder.

The vassalage system was based on the practice of land grants. The person who received the land became a vassal, the one who gave it became a lord. The owner of the land, the lord, could give a fief (land plot) for temporary use under special conditions. Land was given under certain conditions, the most important of which was service with the lord, which, as a rule, was 40 days a year according to feudal custom. The most important duties of a vassal in relation to his lord were participation in the lord's army, protection of his possessions, honor, dignity, and participation in his council. If necessary, the vassals ransomed the lord from captivity.

When receiving land, the vassal swore an oath of allegiance to his master. If the vassal did not fulfill his obligations, the lord could take the land from him, but this was not so easy, since the vassal, as a feudal lord, was inclined to defend his property with arms in hand. In general, despite the seemingly clear order, the vassalage system was quite confusing, and a vassal could have several lords at the same time. Then the principle “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal” was in effect.

In the Middle Ages, two main classes of feudal society were also formed: feudal lords, spiritual and secular - land owners, and peasants - land holders. The basis of the economy of the Middle Ages was agriculture, in which most of the population was employed. The peasants cultivated both their land plots and the master's.

Among the peasants there were two groups, differing in their economic and social status. Personally free peasants could, at their own discretion, leave their owner, give up their land holdings: rent them out or sell them to another peasant. Having freedom of movement, they often moved to cities or new places. They paid fixed taxes in kind and in cash and performed certain work on their master's farm. Another group is personally dependent peasants. Their responsibilities were broader, in addition (and this is the most important difference) they were not fixed, so that personally dependent peasants were subject to arbitrary taxation. They also bore a number of specific taxes: posthumous taxes - upon entering into an inheritance, marriage taxes - redemption of the right of the first night, etc. These peasants did not enjoy freedom of movement.

The producer of material goods under feudalism was the peasant, who, unlike the slave and the hired worker, managed the farm himself, and in many ways completely independently, that is, he was the owner. The peasant was the owner of the yard, the main means of production. He also acted as the owner of the land, but was a subordinate owner, while the feudal lord was the supreme owner. The supreme owner of the land is always at the same time the supreme owner of the personalities of the subordinate owners of the land, and thereby their labor force. Here, as in the case of slavery, there is a non-economic dependence of the exploited on the exploiter, but not complete, but supreme. Therefore, the peasant, unlike the slave, is the owner of his personality and labor power, but not full, but subordinate.

Progress in agriculture was also facilitated by the liberation of peasants from personal dependence. The decision on this was made either by the city near which the peasants lived and with which they were connected socially and economically, or by their feudal lord, on whose land they lived. The rights of peasants to land plots were strengthened. They could increasingly freely transfer land by inheritance, bequeath and mortgage it, lease it, donate it and sell it. This is how the land market gradually forms and becomes wider. Commodity-money relations are developing.

Church. The schism (schism) of 1054 led to the formation of two main branches of the Christian church - the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe and the Orthodox Church in Eastern Europe. During the era of the classical Middle Ages, the Catholic Church reached its power in Europe. She influenced all areas of human life. The rulers could not compare with its wealth - the church owned 1/3 of all lands in each country.

A whole series of crusades took place over 400 years, from the 11th to the 15th centuries. They were organized by the Catholic Church against Muslim countries under the slogan of protecting the Holy Sepulcher. In fact, it was an attempt to seize new territories. Knights from all over Europe went on these campaigns. For young warriors, participation in such an adventure was a prerequisite to prove their courage and confirm their knighthood.

Medieval man was extremely religious. What is considered incredible and supernatural for us was ordinary for him. Belief in the dark and light kingdoms, demons, spirits and angels is what surrounded man and what he believed unconditionally.

The Church strictly ensured that its prestige was not damaged. All free-thinking thoughts were nipped in the bud. Many scientists suffered from the actions of the church at one time: Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus and others. At the same time, in the Middle Ages it was the center of education and scientific thought. There were church schools at the monasteries, which taught literacy, prayers, the Latin language and the singing of hymns. In the book copying workshops, also at the monasteries, the works of ancient authors were carefully copied, preserving them for posterity.

The main sector of the economy of Western European countries during the classical Middle Ages, as before, was agriculture. The main characteristics of the development of the agricultural sector as a whole were the process of rapid development of new lands, known in history as the process of internal colonization. It contributed not only to the quantitative growth of the economy, but also to serious qualitative progress, since the duties imposed on peasants on the new lands were predominantly monetary rather than in kind. The process of replacing natural duties with monetary ones, known in the scientific literature as rent commutation, contributed to the growth of economic independence and enterprise of peasants, and an increase in the productivity of their labor. The cultivation of oilseeds and industrial crops is expanding, oil production and winemaking are developing.

Grain productivity reaches the level of sam-4 and sam-5. The growth of peasant activity and the expansion of peasant farming led to a reduction in the feudal lord's economy, which in the new conditions turned out to be less profitable.

An important and ever-increasing segment of the urban population were artisans. From the XII–XIII centuries. Due to the increase in the purchasing power of the population and the growth of consumer demand, there is an increase in urban crafts. Craftsmen are moving from working to order to working for the market. The craft becomes a respected occupation that brings good income. People in construction specialties – masons, carpenters, plasterers – were especially respected. Architecture was then carried out by the most gifted people, with a high level of professional training. During this period, the specialization of crafts deepened, the range of products expanded, and craft techniques were improved, remaining, as before, manual.

Technologies in metallurgy and in the production of cloth fabrics become more complex and more efficient, and in Europe they begin to wear woolen clothes instead of fur and linen. In the 12th century. Mechanical watches were made in Europe in the 13th century. - large tower clock, in the 15th century. - pocket watch. Watchmaking became the school in which precision engineering techniques were developed, which played a significant role in the development of the productive forces of Western society. Other sciences also developed successfully, and many discoveries were made in them. The water wheel was invented, water and windmills were improved, mechanical watches, glasses, and a loom were created.

Craftsmen united into guilds that protected their members from competition from “wild” craftsmen. In cities there could be tens and hundreds of workshops of various economic orientations, because the specialization of production took place not within a workshop, but between workshops. So, in Paris there were more than 350 workshops. The most important feature of the workshops was also a certain regulation of production in order to prevent overproduction and maintain prices at a sufficiently high level; shop authorities, taking into account the volume of the potential market, determined the quantity of products produced.

During this entire period, the guilds fought with the city's top brass for access to management. The city elite, called the patriciate, united representatives of the landed aristocracy, wealthy merchants, and moneylenders. Often the actions of influential artisans were successful, and they were included in the city authorities.

The guild organization of craft production had both obvious disadvantages and advantages, one of which was a well-established apprenticeship system. The official training period in different workshops ranged from 2 to 14 years; it was assumed that during this time a craftsman should go from student and journeyman to master.

The workshops developed strict requirements for the material from which the goods were made, for tools, and production technology. All this ensured stable operation and guaranteed excellent product quality. The high level of medieval Western European craft is evidenced by the fact that an apprentice who wanted to receive the title of master was required to complete a final work, which was called a “masterpiece” (the modern meaning of the word speaks for itself).

The workshops also created conditions for the transfer of accumulated experience, ensuring the continuity of craft generations. In addition, artisans participated in the formation of a united Europe: apprentices during the training process could roam around different countries; masters, if there were more of them in the city than required, easily moved to new places.

On the other hand, towards the end of the classical Middle Ages, in the 14th–15th centuries, the guild organization of industrial production increasingly began to act as an inhibitory factor. The workshops are increasingly isolated and stop developing. In particular, it was almost impossible for many to become a master: only the son of a master or his son-in-law could actually obtain the status of a master. This has led to a large layer of “eternal apprentices” appearing in cities. In addition, strict regulation of crafts begins to hinder the introduction of technological innovations, without which progress in the sphere of material production is unthinkable. Therefore, the workshops gradually exhausted themselves, and by the end of the classical Middle Ages, a new form of organization of industrial production appeared - manufactory.

In the classical Middle Ages, old cities grew rapidly and new ones emerged - near castles, fortresses, monasteries, bridges, and river crossings. Cities with a population of 4–6 thousand inhabitants were considered medium. There were very large cities, such as Paris, Milan, Florence, where 80 thousand people lived. Life in a medieval city was difficult and dangerous - frequent epidemics claimed the lives of more than half of the townspeople, as happened, for example, during the “Black Death” - a plague epidemic in the middle of the 14th century. Fires were also frequent. However, they still wanted to go to the cities, because, as the saying testified, “the city air made a dependent person free” - for this you had to live in the city for one year and one day.

Cities arose on the lands of the king or large feudal lords and were beneficial to them, bringing in income in the form of taxes on crafts and trade.

At the beginning of this period, most cities were dependent on their lords. The townspeople fought to gain independence, that is, to become a free city. The authorities of independent cities were elected and had the right to collect taxes, pay the treasury, manage city finances at their own discretion, have their own courts, mint their own coins, and even declare war and make peace. The means of struggle of the urban population for their rights were urban uprisings - communal revolutions, as well as the purchase of their rights from the lord. Only the richest cities, such as London and Paris, could afford such a ransom. However, many other Western European cities were also rich enough to gain independence for money. So, in the 13th century. About half of all cities in England - that is, about 200 - gained independence in collecting taxes.

The wealth of cities was based on the wealth of their citizens. Among the richest were moneylenders and money changers. They determined the quality and usefulness of the coin, and this was extremely important in the context of the constant deterioration of coins practiced by mercantilistic governments; they exchanged money and transferred it from one city to another; They took available capital for safekeeping and provided loans.

At the beginning of the classical Middle Ages, banking activity developed most actively in Northern Italy. The activities of moneylenders and money changers could be extremely profitable, but sometimes (if large feudal lords and kings refused to repay large loans) they also became bankrupt.

Late Middle Ages

(1300-1640)

In Western European science, the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the church reformation (early 16th century) or the era of great geographical discoveries (15-17th centuries). The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.

This is one of the most tragic periods of the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, almost the entire world experienced several plague epidemics, the Black Death. In Europe alone, it destroyed more than 60 million people, almost half the population. This is the time of the strongest peasant uprisings in England and France and the longest war in the history of mankind - the Hundred Years' War. But at the same time, this is the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the Renaissance.

Reformation (lat. reformatio - correction, transformation, reformation) is a broad religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th - early 17th centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.

The main reason for the Reformation was the struggle between those who represented the emerging capitalist mode of production and the defenders of the then dominant feudal system, the protection of the ideological dogmas of which was carried out by the Catholic Church. The interests and aspirations of the emerging bourgeois class and the masses who in one way or another supported its ideology found expression in the founding of Protestant churches, which called for modesty, economy, accumulation and self-reliance, as well as in the formation of national states in which the church did not play a major role.

Until the 16th century, the Church in Europe owned large fiefs, and its power could only last as long as the feudal system existed. The wealth of the church was based on land ownership, church tithes and fees for rituals. The splendor and decoration of the temples was amazing. The church and the feudal system perfectly complemented each other.

With the emergence of a new, gradually gaining strength class of society - the bourgeoisie, the situation began to change. Many have long expressed dissatisfaction with the excessive pomp of the rites and temples of the church. The high cost of church rituals also caused great protest among the population. The bourgeoisie, which wanted to invest money not in pompous and expensive church ceremonies, but in production, was especially dissatisfied with this state of affairs.

In some countries where the power of the king was strong, the church was limited in its appetites. In many others, where the priests could manage to their heart's content, she was hated by the entire population. Here the Reformation found fertile ground.

In the 14th century, Oxford professor John Wycliffe openly opposed the Catholic Church, calling for the destruction of the institution of the papacy and the confiscation of all lands from the priests. His successor was Jan Hus, rector of the University of Prague and part-time pastor. He fully supported Wycliffe's idea and proposed church reform in the Czech Republic. For this he was declared a heretic and burned at the stake.

The beginning of the Reformation is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church, in which he spoke out against the existing abuses of the Catholic Church, in particular against the sale of indulgences. Historians consider the end of the Reformation to be the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, as a result of which the religious factor ceased to play a significant role in European politics.

The main idea of his work is that a person does not need the mediation of the church to turn to God; faith is enough for him. This act marked the beginning of the Reformation in Germany. Luther was persecuted by church authorities, who demanded that he recant his words. The ruler of Saxony, Friedrich, stood up for him, hiding the doctor of theology in his castle. Followers of Luther's teachings continued to struggle to bring about change in the church. The protests, which were brutally suppressed, led to the Peasants' War in Germany. Supporters of the Reformation began to be called Protestants.

The Reformation did not end with Luther's death. It began in other European countries - in Denmark, England, Norway, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, the Baltic states, and Poland.

Protestantism became widespread throughout Europe in the beliefs of the followers of Luther (Lutheranism), John Calvin (Calvinism), Ulrich Zwingli (Zwinglianism), etc.

A set of measures taken by the Catholic Church and the Jesuits to combat the Reformation,

The process of pan-European integration was contradictory: along with rapprochement in the field of culture and religion, there was a desire for national isolation in terms of statehood development. The Middle Ages are the time of the formation of national states, which exist in the form of monarchies, both absolute and estate-representative. The peculiarities of political power were its fragmentation, as well as its connection with conditional ownership of land. If in ancient Europe the right to own land was determined for a free person by his ethnicity - the fact of his birth in a given polis and the resulting civil rights, then in medieval Europe the right to land depended on a person’s belonging to a certain class.

At this time, centralized power was strengthened in most Western European countries, and national states began to form and strengthen (England, France, Germany, etc.). Large feudal lords are increasingly dependent on the king. However, the king's power is still not truly absolute. The era of class-representative monarchies is coming. It was during this period that the practical implementation of the principle of separation of powers began, and the first parliaments emerged - estate-representative bodies that significantly limited the power of the king. The earliest such parliament, the Cortes, appeared in Spain (late 12th – early 12th centuries). In 1265, parliament appears in England. In the XIV century. parliaments had already been created in most Western European countries. At first, the work of parliaments was not regulated in any way; neither the timing of meetings nor the order of their holding were determined - all this was decided by the king, depending on the specific situation. However, even then, the most important and constant issue that parliamentarians considered was taxes.

Parliaments could act as an advisory, legislative, and judicial body. Gradually, legislative functions were assigned to parliament, and a certain confrontation between parliament and the king was outlined. Thus, the king could not introduce additional taxes without the sanction of parliament, although formally the king was much higher than parliament, and it was the king who convened and dissolved parliament and proposed issues for discussion.

Parliaments were not the only political innovation of the classical Middle Ages. Another important new component of public life was political parties, which first began to form in the 13th century. in Italy, and then (in the 14th century) in France. Political parties fiercely opposed each other, but the reason for their confrontation was then more likely to be psychological than economic.

In the XV–XVII centuries. In the field of politics, a lot of new things have also appeared. Statehood and government structures are noticeably strengthening. The line of political evolution common to most European countries was to strengthen the central government and strengthen the role of the state in the life of society.

Almost all countries of Western Europe during this period went through the horrors of bloody strife and war. An example would be the War of the Roses in England in the 15th century. As a result of this war, England lost a quarter of its population. The Middle Ages were also a time of peasant uprisings, unrest and riots. An example is the rebellion led by Wat Tyler and John Ball in England in 1381.

Great geographical discoveries. One of the first expeditions to India was organized by Portuguese sailors who tried to reach it by circumnavigating Africa. In 1487, they discovered the Cape of Good Hope - the southernmost point of the African continent. At the same time, the Italian Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was also looking for a way to India, who managed to equip four expeditions with money from the Spanish court. The Spanish royal couple - Ferdinand and Isabella - believed his arguments and promised him huge profits from the newly discovered lands. Already during the first expedition in October 1492, Columbus discovered the New World, then called America after Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), who participated in expeditions to South America in 1499–1504. It was he who first described new lands and first expressed the idea that this was a new part of the world, not yet known to Europeans.

The sea route to real India was first paved by a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) in 1498. The first trip around the world was made in 1519–1521, led by the Portuguese Magellan (1480–1521). Of the 256 people in Magellan's team, only 18 survived, and Magellan himself died in a battle with the natives. Many expeditions of that time ended so sadly.

In the second half of the 16th – 17th centuries. The British, Dutch and French took the path of colonial conquest. By the middle of the 17th century. Europeans discovered Australia and New Zealand.

As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, colonial empires begin to take shape, and treasures - gold and silver - flow from the newly discovered lands to Europe - the Old World. The consequence of this was an increase in prices, primarily for agricultural products. This process, which took place to one degree or another in all countries of Western Europe, was called the price revolution in historical literature. It contributed to the growth of monetary wealth among merchants, entrepreneurs, speculators and served as one of the sources of the initial accumulation of capital.

Another important consequence of the Great Geographical Discoveries was the relocation of world trade routes: the monopoly of Venetian merchants on caravan trade with the East in Southern Europe was broken. The Portuguese began to sell Indian goods several times cheaper than Venetian merchants.

Countries actively engaged in intermediary trade – England and the Netherlands – are growing stronger. Engaging in intermediary trade was very unreliable and dangerous, but very profitable: for example, if out of three ships sent to India, one returned, then the expedition was considered successful, and the traders’ profits often reached 1000%. Thus, trade was the most important source for the formation of large private capital.

The quantitative growth of trade contributed to the emergence of new forms in which trade was organized. In the 16th century For the first time, exchanges appeared, the main goal and purpose of which was to use price fluctuations over time. Thanks to the development of trade at this time, a much stronger connection between the continents emerged than before. This is how the foundations of the world market begin to be laid.