Methods for determining the sides of the horizon. Sides of the horizon

In order to learn how to navigate, you need to be able to determine your location on the ground relative to the sides of the horizon.

In geography, one of the four main directions: north, south, west, east. Between them are the intermediate sides of the horizon: northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast. Orientation is determining your location relative to the sides of the horizon and surrounding objects.

Ways to navigate the terrain

Even in ancient times, people in the Northern Hemisphere determined the southern direction by the position of the sun at noon. The midday shadow from objects here is always directed from south to north. The eastern direction can be recognized by the location of sunrise, and the western direction by the location of sunset. A very reliable method in the Northern Hemisphere according to the North Star. The northern end of the earth's axis is directed towards it, so it always points north. If you stand facing north, then the south will be behind you, the east will be on your right, and the west will be on your left.

Local signs can also be used for orientation. For example, the bark of trees on the northern side is rougher and darker than on the southern side, and the southern side of anthills is flatter than the northern one.

Compass

To accurately determine the sides of the horizon, a compass is needed. Its magnetic needle always points north. When determining the sides of the horizon, the compass is installed in a horizontal position so that its arrow does not touch the body, and by turning it, the end of the arrow is aligned with the pointer C (north). This position means that the compass is oriented.

Azimuth

To determine the exact direction to an object, it is not enough to know which side of the horizon it is located on. It is necessary to determine the azimuth to this object. Azimuth is the angle between the direction north and the direction towards the object.

An angle is a figure formed by two rays emanating from one point. The unit of measurement for angle is degree, which is written as 1°. A degree is 1/180 of a straight angle.

A degree can serve as a measure of a circle and circular arcs. Every circle, regardless of its radius, contains 360°, and a semicircle contains 180°. The circumference of the dial is also divided into 360°.

To determine using a compass, it is first oriented. Then a thin stick is placed on the compass in the direction from the center of the compass to the object. Azimuth is measured from north towards the direction of the object. So, the direction to the east has an azimuth of 90°, to the south - 180°, to the west - 270°.

3) In what ways can you determine the sides of the horizon based on local characteristics?!

4) What data is needed when moving in azimuth?!

5) In what ways can you determine the distance traveled?!

6) What are the main sources of food in survival conditions?!

1) The procedures to be followed in different emergency situations differ from each other and depend on the specific situation. It is impossible to provide in advance a specific plan of action for all occasions, since an emergency situation usually arises suddenly, and its further development cannot always be predicted. Human behavior in this case is dictated by many factors. However, a general scheme of priority actions for victims of disaster still exists.

In the event of a vehicle accident (plane, train, motor vehicle, other means of transportation) in a deserted area, you should:

Immediately evacuate passengers and victims to a safe place;

When leaving the vehicle, if possible, take with you property that may be useful for autonomous existence;

Provide first aid to victims;

If you have an emergency radio station, prepare it for operation and transmit a distress message, then turn on the emergency radio beacon;

Prepare signaling equipment for use (flares, cartridges, dyes, mirrors, etc.);

Find your bearings and clarify your location;

In unfavorable climatic conditions, build a shelter, placing it, if possible, next to a clearing on which a rescue helicopter can land.

2,3) Orientation is the ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding objects and relief forms, to find the desired direction of movement and maintain it.

Basic methods of orientation:

By compass;

By celestial bodies (by the Sun, by the stars, by the Moon);

According to local characteristics.

On sunny noon, the direction of the shadow points north. The direction north can be determined by the sun and the clock. If the hour hand is directed towards the sun, then the bisector of the angle between this hand and the direction at 12 o’clock (1 o’clock in the summer) will be a “north-south” line. Before noon, the south will be to the right of the sun, and after noon it will be to the left.

At night, the direction north can be determined by the North Star. The direction to the north and south can also be determined by local signs:

In winter, the snow melts more on the southern slopes of hills, hillocks and northern slopes of holes and depressions;

Lichens and mosses are more developed on the northern side of tree trunks;

Resinous trees produce more resin in hot weather on the south side;

In the mountains, the southern slopes are drier and warmer;

Forest clearings, as a rule, are cut in the directions north - south and west - east;

The northern slope of an anthill is usually steeper than the southern one.

4) The essence of movement along azimuths is to maintain on the ground the directions specified by magnetic azimuths (directional angles) and distances determined from the map.

Directions of movement are maintained using a magnetic compass, and distances are measured in steps or using the speedometer of the car.

This is the main method of movement in terrain poor in landmarks, especially at night and with limited visibility.

To move along a given azimuth you need to:

Study on the map the area between the starting and ending points of the movement;

Map out a route that is easily recognizable by local objects;

Draw the chosen route on the map and determine the azimuths of all route links;

Determine the length of each route link on the map;

Write down all data for the movement in the field book in the form of a table or diagram.

5) Measure in steps. The simplest and most accurate of the listed methods. Moving from one object to another, count the number of paired steps, for example under the left foot. The length of a double step can be determined by the empirical formula: Ш=2(P/4+37) where Ш is the length of a double step, P is a person’s height in cm, and 4 and 37 are constant numbers.

Visual determination of distances. The fastest method, but requiring a lot of preliminary training. In order to develop your eye, you need to practice estimating distances by eye as often as possible in different terrain conditions at different times of the year and day, with the obligatory check of them in steps or on a map (for example, a sports map). First of all, you need to learn to mentally imagine and confidently distinguish several distances that are most convenient as standards on any terrain. You need to start with distances of 10, 50, 100 m and, only having firmly mastered them, move on to segments of 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 m. Having fixed the reference segments in your visual memory, you can then mentally compare the distances of interest with them. When training your eye, you should keep in mind that the assessment of distances is influenced by a number of factors, such as illumination, the nature of the terrain, the contrast of the objects in question with the surrounding background and their sizes.

Objects appear closer than they really are:

if they are brightly lit on a dark background or, conversely, dark on a light background;

on a clear sunny day in direct light, at sunrise;

larger objects compared to small ones located at the same distance;

when observing through open, especially water, spaces, valleys and hollows that intersect the measured line (the opposite bank of the reservoir always seems closer);

luminous lights "approach" the observer;

when observing from bottom to top, for example from the foot of a mountain to the top.

Conversely, objects "move away" from the observer:

at dusk, when observing against the light and at sunset;

in fog, cloudy and rainy weather;

if objects do not stand out well against the general background of the area;

if the object of interest to us is located among a mass of other small objects (bushes, individual trees, hillocks, stones, etc.);

small and dark compared to large and bright;

when observed from top to bottom, from top to bottom.

Determination of distances by time and speed.

As an auxiliary method for general orientation, you can calculate the distance traveled, knowing the time of movement and the average speed. The time of movement can be determined quite accurately using a watch or stopwatch. The situation is more complicated with determining the average speed of a group in traveling conditions. Moreover, difficulties arise both with determining the absolute value of the speed and with maintaining its constancy. However, in some types of travel (river rafting, skiing) there is still a need to determine speed. In each specific case, you must try to determine the speed of movement, for example, along a known section of the path, and then, moving at the same pace, you can use the previously determined speed value and time to calculate the unknown section of the path. The speed of the group's movement will be discussed in more detail later.

6) The main sources of food in survival conditions can be:

Emergency food ration;

Wild edible plants, algae, mushrooms;

Food of animal origin.

List the actions of a person who discovers that his apartment has been broken into:

If you enter your apartment and find that it has been broken into, immediately report it to the competent police station.

Do not touch anything, so as not to spoil the traces of the break-in and not to erase the fingerprints of the criminal. Do not under any circumstances try to eliminate the chaos in the apartment caused by him.

After the police arrive, check in their presence what items were stolen, make a list of the damage caused to the apartment and hand it over to the police.

Then replace the lock.

What do you do when a stranger rings your doorbell? stranger in police uniform.

You need to ask him to introduce himself, show his identification and clarify what issue he is calling about.

Insert into the text the missing words or phrases that seem correct to you.

Returning home late at night, I walked along dark street. It seemed to me that someone was following me. I'm sharp quickened my pace movements. Then I crossed to the other side of the street, there were People. Suddenly a car stopped near me. The people in it asked to show them the way. I approached the car at a distance one and a half meters. They thanked me and offered to give me a ride. I refused. Entering the entrance, I noticed that an unfamiliar person was there. I I won't go into the elevator with him.

Insert into the text the missing phrases or words that seem correct to you.

I called a taxi. It was at the house 30 minutes after I called. “Sit down,” said the driver and opened the front door. I thought I wanted to sit down, but I refused and said: Thank you, I’ll sit in the back. I opened the other door.

We went. On the way we picked up a fellow traveler. He tried to get to know me. I did not want. I suggested keeping quiet.

We got to the place where I needed to get out, but it was dark there. I asked the driver to stop further, it was brighter there. I thanked the driver and got out of the car.

A) so as not to disturb others

B) batteries run out quickly

B) due to the possibility of hearing loss

D) it is impossible to recognize sounds warning of danger in headphones.

Determining directions to the sides of the horizon

Directions to the sides of the horizon are determined by a magnetic compass, celestial bodies and some signs of local objects.

Magnetic compass device. When navigating the terrain, the Adrianov's compass and the artillery compass (AK) are most widely used.

Adrianov's compass (Fig. 10) consists of a body 1, in the center of which a magnetic needle 3 is placed on the tip of the needle. When the needle is not inhibited, its northern end is set in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole, and the southern end is set in the direction of the South Magnetic Pole. When not in use, the needle is secured by brake 6. Inside the compass body there is a circular scale (dial) 2, divided into 120 divisions. The price of one division is 3°, or 50 small divisions of the protractor (0-50). The scale has double digitization. Internal digitization is applied clockwise from 0 to 360° in 15° increments (5 scale divisions). The external digitization of the scale is applied counterclockwise through 5 large graduations of the protractor (10 scale divisions). To sight local objects (landmarks) and take readings on the compass scale, a sighting device (front sight and rear sight) 4 and a reading indicator 5 are attached to the rotating compass ring.

The northern end of the magnetic needle, reading indicators and 90° divisions on the scale are covered with glow-in-the-dark paint, which makes it easier to use the compass at night.

The AK artillery compass (Fig. 11) consists of a body and a goniometric scale 3, placed in the body 2 of the dial. The goniometer scale is divided into 60 divisions. The price of one division is equal to 100 small divisions of the protractor. The count of divisions increases clockwise. A sighting device (slot and front sight) is fixedly mounted on the compass body. Rotation of the dial body allows, without changing the position of the compass, to quickly align the zero division of the scale with the northern end

magnetic needle. On the inside of the hinged cover 4 of the compass there is a metal mirror a, which makes it possible, when sighting an object, to simultaneously control the position of the magnetic needle and count on the scale. The lid has a cutout b for sighting and a latch c.

The compass "Tourist-2" is designed in a similar way. The dial scale in this compass is given in degrees. The price of one division is 5°.

When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or nearby metal objects will deflect the needle from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railroad tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.

Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass is performed as follows. The sighting device's front sight is placed on the zero scale division, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position. Then the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned so that its northern end coincides with the zero reading. After this, without changing the position of the compass, a distant landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.

The directions to the sides of the horizon are interconnected (Fig. 12), and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined. In the opposite direction to the north there will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.

Determining the direction to the sides of the horizon using celestial bodies. In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (readings), the sides of the horizon can be determined by the celestial bodies: during the day, by the Sun, and at night, by the North Star or the Moon.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is approximately 7.00 in the east, 13.00 in the south, and 19.00 in the west. The position of the Sun at these hours will indicate the directions east, south and west, respectively.

To more accurately determine the sides of the horizon based on the Sun, wristwatches are used. In a horizontal position, they are installed so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. The angle between the hour hand and the direction towards number 1 on the watch dial is divided in half by a straight line, which indicates the direction to the south. Before noon, it is necessary to divide in half the arc (angle) that the arrow must pass before 13.00 (Fig. 13, a), and after noon, the arc that it passed after 13.00 (Fig. 13.6).

The North Star is always in the north. At night, in a cloudless sky, it is easy to find by the constellation Ursa Major. Through the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper you need to mentally draw a straight line (Fig. 14) and put on it five times a segment equal to the distance between the outermost stars. The end of the fifth segment will indicate the position of the North Star, which is located in the constellation Ursa Minor (the final star of the small dipper).

The North Star can serve as a reliable guide for maintaining the direction of movement, since its position in the sky remains virtually unchanged over time. The accuracy of determining the direction using the North Star is 2-3°.

Using the Moon, the sides of the horizon are determined more accurately when its entire disk is visible (full moon). In table Figure 1 shows the sides of the horizon on which the Moon is located in various phases.

Table 1

Determining the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects (Fig. 15). If there is no compass and the heavenly bodies are not visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by the signs of local objects:

Moss or lichen covers tree trunks, stones and stumps on the north side; if moss grows all over the tree trunk, then on the north side, especially at the root, there is more of it;

The bark of trees on the north side is usually rougher and darker than on the south;

In spring, the grass on the northern edges of forest clearings and glades, as well as on the southern side of individual trees, stumps, and large stones, grows thicker;

Anthills are usually located south of nearby trees and stumps; the southern side of the anthill is flatter than the northern;

On the southern slopes in the spring the snow melts faster than on the northern ones.

There are other signs by which you can determine the sides of the horizon. For example, clearings in forest areas, as a rule, are cut in the directions north-south and east-west, and blocks are numbered from west to east.

Orientation based on local characteristics: methods and examples

A person going into the forest needs to know how to determine the sides of the horizon. Orientation is a very useful skill because... It's very easy to get lost in Russian forests. At the same time, it is useless to rely on modern means of communication, because in many areas there is no network coverage area.

Don't be afraid

The most reliable methods of orientation are by celestial bodies: the Sun, Moon or Polar Star. However, it is not always possible to use them. Most often, dense low clouds interfere. In this case, it is necessary to be able to navigate using local natural features.

All methods given in specialized training literature are shown in exaggerated form and taken under ideal conditions. In reality, everything is much more complicated. Signs can be contradictory; in a real forest there are numerous and varied factors that influence these signs: relief, weather conditions, winds, etc. Therefore, it can be very difficult for a person, even who knows by heart all the methods of orientation based on local signs, to correctly determine the cardinal directions.

Basic Rules

To avoid losing your way in an emergency, training is necessary. You can learn on your own: first, a person determines where north, south, west and east are, guided by various natural signs, and then checks himself with a compass.

People who live in nature or spend a lot of time outside cities have developed senses. Sometimes they cannot determine how to talk about the reasons for their decision, but it turns out to be correct. The fact is that they often have to rely only on their powers of observation, and this is also training, only subconscious. Therefore, you should trust the judgments of local residents.

Orientation based on local characteristics is not an easy task. First of all, patience is required here. Under no circumstances should you rely on 1-2 randomly seen signs. There must be at least 5 of them.

Another important point is observation. It is necessary not only to be able to find signs, but also to compare them with natural conditions in order to find out where the coincidence is and where it is not.

Common sense will help you separate the wheat from the chaff and make the right conclusions regarding the location of the sides of the horizon.

Effects of Heat and Sunlight on Trees

Orientation based on local natural features in the forest is carried out in the north-south direction. This is due to the fact that the plant world is very responsive to solar heat. The influence of light on trees is especially noticeable, so taiga hunters most often resort to these signs.

On the south side, the bark of trees is softer and lighter than on the north. But not all tree species show this dependence clearly. First of all, you should pay attention to birch, aspen and larches. For the former, this dependence can be traced even in a dense forest.

In a coniferous forest, it is easy to navigate by natural signs: you should take a closer look at the resin secretions on the trunks. On the south side they are much more abundant.

The trunks of pines turn black after rain, many have noticed this, but not everyone paid attention to the fact that they darken mainly on the north side. This is due to the fact that coniferous trees have a thin secondary crust. Its formation is more intensive on the shadow side: there it is thicker, denser and rises high along the trunk. When it is damp or raining outside, it takes in water, swells and darkens. The north side receives almost no sunlight, and the bark remains dark and damp for a long time.

Effects of Heat on Other Plants

There are various examples of orientation based on local characteristics. For example, in the plant world.

The bulk of mosses and lichens will grow on the north side of stones and trees. This is due to the fact that these are shade- and moisture-loving plants. On the shady side the moss is damper.

You can also pay attention to the grass. On the southern slopes of clearings and the edges of clearings, grass grows thicker and appears earlier in the spring.

Dew stays longer on grass growing north of trees. The vegetation here retains its fresh appearance longer.

The berries turn red first on the south side, because... it is exposed to sunlight for longer periods of time. Therefore, during the period of fruit ripening, it will not be difficult to determine where the north is.

Patterns can also be traced in the way mushrooms grow. It turns out they prefer the north side.

However, it is unlikely that these signs will be clearly visible in dense forest or more often. It is almost impossible to carry out orientation based on local characteristics here, because... they are practically invisible due to microclimate conditions. You need to look for signs in rare areas, near clearings. All of the above signs are especially clearly visible on isolated trees. But you can’t trust isolated signs. It is possible to talk about any orientation only if the signs are systematically repeated. It is advisable to double-check all the information received several times.

Signs of orientation in the steppe

The most difficult thing is to determine the direction in the field. However, there are helpers here too. Orientation based on local natural features can be done with the help of some plants.

The field weed lutak can help determine the sides of the horizon. They even call it that - “steppe compass”. The fact is that its leaves are positioned vertically, with the ribs oriented in north-south directions, and the planes facing west and east.

Sunflower is another great helper. The fact is that he is very thermophilic. Therefore, he always reaches out to the sun, and during the day the flower’s cap follows his path. Before dawn and early in the morning the sunflower will look east, after 12 - to the south, and after sunset - to the west. Of course, when the seeds are already ripe, he will not turn his head, but the cap will still be directed to the southeast.

Nature of the area

Anthills are usually located on the south side of a stump or tree. This way they get more sunlight and heat. In a free-standing anthill, you can notice that its southern slope is flatter.

The nature of the vegetation may vary depending on which side it grows on. Taiga specialists have noted many times that the southern slopes are freer and can be easily walked along. Here the trees are widely spaced and there are few bushes. The slopes are covered with grass. On the northern sides it is much more difficult to walk. The forest grows crowded here, there are many bushes, but, on the contrary, there is little grass.

The distribution of some plant species will also help to navigate based on the characteristics of local objects. However, you need to know about such features in advance. For example, in the south of the coastal taiga, oak covers the southern slopes, and velvet trees grow on the northern ones.

Gullies and gullies also have their own characteristics. Usually one side is smoother and flatter, with a lot of grass growing on it. The opposite one is steep, cracked, bare, with screes, practically without vegetation. The first is the southern side, the second is the northern.

If the slopes look approximately the same, then the hollow is oriented in a north-south direction, and the sides face west and east.

Forest clearings

If a lost person comes across a clearing, he will be very lucky. Determining the direction in this case will not be difficult. Orientation based on local characteristics in this case is very easy to carry out. The fact is that in forestry there is a custom of dividing the taiga into quarters. This is why clearings are cut. They go from west to east and from north to south. Quarter poles are installed at intersections. Their upper part is trimmed in a characteristic way: in the form of edges. They indicate the number of opposite blocks. Number 1 is installed in the northwest corner, the last one in the southeast. In order not to look for the starting post, you should remember a simple rule: the angle between the 2 smallest numbers will indicate the direction to the north.

However, there is an exception to this rule: in rare cases, clearings are cut without reference to the sides of the horizon. As a rule, this is facilitated by difficult terrain or some economic considerations.

In populated areas

If you come across villages along the way, even abandoned ones, this is still a very good help. It is much easier to navigate by terrain features here. Religious buildings are of primary interest because... they always have a strict orientation to the cardinal points.

Thus, in Orthodox churches, the altar always faces the east, and the bell towers always face the west. The crosses on the tops are directed in a north-south orientation. There is one more feature here. The lowered edge of the lower crossbar faces south, and the raised edge faces north.

Buddhist monasteries are built facing south.

Dwellings also have their own patterns of location. So, at the yurts the exit is directed to the south.

Lichen quickly appears on northern facades and roof slopes. Also, boards on the shady side are usually darker and remain damp longer after rain.

A few rules for orienteering in winter

When everything is covered in snow, it is much more difficult to determine your location and find the sides of the horizon. But here, too, there are a number of patterns. The orientation methods are as follows:

1. More snow accumulates on the north side of trees and buildings.
2. On the south side it begins to melt earlier, this process occurs faster.
3. In the mountains, the snow melts off from the south first.
4. In ravines, hollows, gullies, everything happens the other way around. The north side thaws first.

Misconception #1

There are both proven signs of orientation and some not very accurate ways to determine the sides of the horizon. One of them is that the annual rings on the south side are wider than on the north. However, this sign cannot be used as a guide, because it is not unambiguous. The expansion of tree rings can occur from any direction, and this is caused more by terrain features and microclimate than by exposure to sunlight. This statement was proven wrong over 100 years ago, but it is still alive and used.

Another problem that may arise if such methods of orientation are used is that in the taiga it is almost impossible to find a large number of neatly cut trees where the pattern would be clearly visible. And if you cut a tree in several places, you will notice that the width of the annual rings can change regardless of the direction and sometimes point in opposite directions.

Misconception #2

Attempts to determine the direction by crown density also cannot be crowned with success. The fact is that during its formation, sunlight is not the only factor, and certainly not the determining one. Therefore, the statement that the crown is thicker on the south side may be erroneous. In the forest, branches will always grow in the direction where there is more free space. And in open spaces, the dominant wind direction will be the determining factor. If they are strong, then you can see branches bent from constant exposure. The density of the crown is rather an auxiliary sign.

The most reliable way

Orientation based on local characteristics is not reliable enough. The best results are obtained by using celestial bodies to determine the sides of the horizon. Therefore, it is necessary to know the basic patterns of their location.

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. At noon it is in the south. The shortest shadow is at 13 o'clock. It will be directed north. If the weather is cloudy, then you can try to put a knife on your nail: a barely noticeable shadow will still appear, and with it the direction and location of the sun will become clear.

Using a watch you can also determine the sides of the horizon. In this case, you need to point the hour hand towards the Sun. An angle is formed between it and the number 1, which must be divided in half. The bisector will indicate the direction: south will be in front, and north behind. In the first half of the day the angle will be to the left of 1, and in the second half to the right.

The polar star in our hemisphere is located in the north. To find it, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major. It resembles a large ladle. Through the 2 rightmost stars you need to draw a line, set aside the distance 5 times. At the end there will be Polar. If you stand facing it, it will be in the direction of north.

The Moon also has a number of location patterns. When there is a full moon, it is equated to the Sun and the sides of the horizon are looked for in a similar way. However, we must take into account that it is opposed to the main luminary.

When you lose your bearings

If travelers still get lost, under no circumstances should they continue moving. First you need to find the sides of the horizon. Orientation should be carried out immediately, and then retrace your steps to the place where the location was absolutely clear. If you try to move on, hoping that everything will soon fall into place, then you can get lost and confused even more. In this case, it will be extremely difficult to get out.

As soon as it becomes clear that the group has lost its way, you need to immediately stop and look around carefully. It's good if there is a high hill nearby. In this case, you can look around and compare the visible area with the map, you can try to navigate using local signs of nature.

Please write in detail how you can determine the cardinal directions without a compass?

Alenka №#%

ORIENTATION WITHOUT A COMPASS
Every wanderer must be able to navigate.
This means not getting lost in an unfamiliar area, correctly determining where you are, which side is the camp or station, or river, that is, where you are going or from.
First of all, the sides of the horizon will help with this.
There are 4 main sides of the horizon, they are designated by initial letters:
north – N (north –N),
south – S (south Z) or S,
east – E (east – O) or EST – E,
west – W (west – W).
(In parentheses are the nautical names of the sides of the horizon, which came to Russia thanks to Peter I from Holland.)
You can determine the sides of the horizon using a magnetic compass - the arrow with the dark (blue) end points to the north. What if there is no compass?
According to the sun

According to the sun and the clock



By the stars

Forest compasses
All natural signs of the sides of the horizon are associated with the fact that it is warm from the south and cold from the north.
ANTHILLS:
Flattering to the south, they are attached to a tree (stone) on the south side.
BERRIES: ripen faster on the south side.
LICHENS AND MOSSES: on the north side of stones and trees.
RESIN: On coniferous trees it protrudes from the north.
In wet weather, there is a dark stripe on the trunks (especially pine trees) from the north.
In early spring, SNOW MELTS faster on southern slopes;
The HOLES near the trees are extended to the south.
ATTENTION!
Don't trust crowns and tree rings!
Never use one sign - compare several.
How can knowing the sides of the horizon help you avoid getting lost?
To do this, when setting out, you need to determine your direction relative to the sides of the horizon and check your course from time to time. If you turn, get your bearings again. If you need to return, turn 180. For example, you walked at azimuth 45 (N - E), you need to return: 45 + 180 = 225 (S - W).
Perhaps they will immediately start looking for you in LA. Lay out your parachute and try to attract attention. What to do in winter, when the color of the dome (say D-6) matches the color of the surrounding surface. Don't stand still. Take the stabilizing parachute in your hands and start flapping. You can give signals with Smoke - spruce branches, you can light them up quite quickly, and recommend that everyone take matches, as they can be useful for more than just this.
If they haven’t started looking for you yet, and the next rise has begun, look in which direction the parachutists are descending and at what place the aircraft is taking off and landing. This will also help you determine which direction the airfield is located. Instructors have repeatedly told their students to take their cell phones with them.
But most often they don’t take it because the phones are expensive, and overloads usually cause them to fail. Buy yourself a cheap phone specifically for jumping, preferably with the least number of functions and a small display, or use an old phone that you don’t mind. There are special models of inexpensive phones designed for extreme conditions. Having a phone with you, you can report that everything is fine with you

***Grey***

The moss on the tree grows on the north side, the branches on the north side of the tree grow more sparsely, the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. On a stump cut on the northern side of the tree, the annual rings are less spaced than on the southern side.
Determining the sides of the horizon using natural signs. Much less accurate than using a compass or celestial bodies. However, in tourist practice it can be useful. Most natural signs are associated with differences in illumination and the amount of thermal energy received from the Sun by plants and objects, depending on their position relative to the sides of the horizon.
Many tree species have rougher bark on the north side, it has more cracks, and lichens and moss are usually located here. The bark of coniferous trees on the southern side is drier, harder and lighter, and deposits of resin form here. Birch trees' bark is always whiter and cleaner on the south side. In the spring, the grass cover is thicker and greener on the south side of the tree or stone, and in the fall the grass in these places turns yellow faster. Anthills, as a rule, are located to the south of a tree, stump, or stone, and the southern slope of the anthill is flatter than the northern. Gophers orient their burrows in the steppe in the same way. Large stones-boulders on the north side are more overgrown with moss or lichen, and in dry weather the soil around the stone on the south side is much drier than on the north. Compass plants are found in nature. The leaves of the steppe lettuce plant (a weed with baskets of yellow flowers) face east and west, and the ribs face north and south, respectively. Sunflower flowers turn to follow the sun during the day and never face north. Ripening strawberries, lingonberries, and cranberries turn red on the south side. The forest management system adopted in our country (p. 15) provides for a certain numbering system for forest blocks (from northwest to southeast). This ensures that the smallest sum of two of the four digits of any quarter post points north. In the spring, flocks of migratory birds fly north, and in the fall - south. In the northern regions in the summer, the northern part of the night sky is light.
Observation of snow cover provides a lot of information about the location of the sides of the horizon. At the end of winter and spring, snow melts more intensely on slopes facing south, the snow cover here becomes covered with an ice crust, and snow needles are formed, “looking” to the south. Near the trees, oval holes are formed, elongated to the south. Icicles form on the south side of any object. A snowstorm or simply falling snow helps to maintain the direction of movement relative to the wind - you need to check from time to time whether the wind has changed. It is very convenient to control the direction of movement along the stripes of snow that form after a snowstorm on the windward side of any object. Snow sastrugi, which form in the tundra and high mountain areas and are oriented along the direction of the prevailing winds, can serve as unique indicators.
In deserts and semi-deserts, under the influence of prevailing winds, dunes are formed, the gentle slopes of which are directed towards the wind, and the steep slopes are located on the leeward side. They can also be used to determine the direction of the prevailing wind.
There are many other natural signs. But this method must be used with caution. Signs that are reliable in one region may turn out to be erroneous in another. They need to be checked and, if possible, determined by several signs or in combination with other methods.

Tolik Andrusyuk

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
The stars on the right side of the Ursa Major bucket look directly at the North Star, which means north. You can also determine it by location. Moss grows on trees only on the south side. Good luck...

Knight imran

According to the sun
At noon, the sun reaches its highest point of rise - ZENIT, the shadows become the shortest of the day. If you stand with your back to the sun, then north is ahead, south is behind, east is to the right, west is to the left, as on the map (and in the southern hemisphere it’s the other way around).
According to the sun and the clock
When there is no time to wait for half a day, a clock with arrows is used.
Place the clock horizontally so that the hour hand points to the sun. Now divide the angle between the arrow and the noon hour with a line going from the center of the path in half. This line will point south.
When is noon? At twelve? In Russia, clocks are set forward 1 hour. This means that noon is at 13:00, and in summer time at 14:00.
By the stars
Wanderers must know the constellations of their sky. First, you must be able to find the Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. The terminal star of Ursa Minor's tail is called the North Star. It can be found by mentally connecting the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper and extending this line to the first bright star - this will be the North Star. If you stand facing it, the north will be directly in front of you.

The sides of the horizon on the ground are determined:

1) by compass;

2) by celestial bodies;

3) according to various features of local objects.

First of all, every student must learn to determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, in particular, using a luminous compass adapted for work at night. The student must master this simplest and most basic orienteering device perfectly. It is not necessary to have a universal Adrianov compass; you can work well with an ordinary luminous compass. When training, you must strive to accurately determine both the main directions of the sides of the horizon, as well as intermediate and reverse directions. The ability to identify reverse directions is very important, and special attention must be paid to it during training.

The observer must remember well the direction north on the ground in order to be able to indicate the sides of the horizon without a compass from any standing point, from memory.

It is still not always possible to accurately determine the direction of movement from the sides of the horizon.

Usually it is taken to a certain extent approximately, for example, in relation to the points of north, northeast, north-northeast, etc., and does not always coincide with them. A more accurate direction can be taken if the movement is made in azimuth. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to introduce the student to the basic concepts of azimuth. At first, it is necessary to ensure that he is able to: 1) determine the azimuth to a local object and 2) move along a given azimuth. As for preparing data for movement in azimuth, this can be done when the student learns to read a map.

How important it is to be able to move in azimuth can be seen from the following example. A certain rifle division fought a night battle in one of the forests in the Bryansk direction. The commander decided to surround the enemy troops. The success of the task depended to a large extent on accurately following the given directions. Everyone, from the squad commander and above, had to go in azimuth. And the ability to move by compass played a role here. As a result of a skillfully executed night maneuver, an entire enemy division was defeated.

In the absence of a compass, you can navigate by the celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, at night - by the Polar Star, the Moon and various constellations. And even if you have a compass, you should know the simplest techniques for orienting by celestial bodies; At night they are easy to navigate and follow the route.

There are a number of ways to determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun: by its position at noon, by sunrise or sunset, by the Sun and shadow, by the Sun and the clock, etc. You can find them in any manual on military topography. These methods are described in sufficient detail by V.I. Pryanishnikov in the interesting brochure “How to navigate”; They are also found in the famous book by Ya. I. Perelman “Entertaining Astronomy”. However, not all of these methods are applicable in combat practice, since their implementation requires a lot of time, calculated not in minutes, but in hours.

The fastest way is to determine by the Sun and the clock; Everyone needs to know this method. At noon, at 13 o'clock, the Sun is almost due south; at about 7 o'clock in the morning it will be in the east, and at 19 o'clock in the west. To find the north-south line at other hours of the day, you need to introduce an appropriate correction based on the calculation that for each hour the visible path of the Sun across the sky will be approximately 15°. The visible disks of the Sun and the full Moon are about half a degree across.

If we take into account that the hour hand circles the dial twice per day, and the Sun during the same time makes its apparent path around the Earth only once, then determining the sides of the horizon can be even easier. To do this you need:

1) place your pocket or wrist watch horizontally (Fig. 1);

Rice. 1. Orientation by the Sun and clock

3) divide the angle formed by the hour hand, the center of the dial and the number “1” in half.

The equidividing line will determine the direction north - south, and the south will be on the sunny side before 19 o'clock, and after 19 o'clock - where the sun was moving from.

It must be borne in mind that this method does not give an accurate result, but for orientation purposes it is quite acceptable. The main reason for the inaccuracy is that the clock dial is parallel to the horizon plane, while the apparent daily path of the Sun lies in the horizontal plane only at the pole.

Since at other latitudes the visible path of the Sun makes different angles with the horizon (up to a right angle at the equator), then, therefore, a greater or lesser error in orientation is inevitable, reaching tens of degrees in the summer, especially in the southern regions. Therefore, in southern latitudes, where the sun is high in summer, there is no point in resorting to this method. The smallest error occurs when using this method in winter, as well as during the equinox periods (around March 21 and September 23).

A more accurate result can be obtained if you use the following technique:

1) the watch is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position at an angle of 40–50° to the horizon (for a latitude of 50–40°), while the watch is held with the thumb and forefinger at the numbers “4” and “10”, the number “1” from yourself (Fig. 2);

2) having found the middle of the arc on the dial between the end of the hour hand and the number “1”, apply a match here perpendicular to the dial;

3) without changing the position of the watch, they rotate together with it in relation to the Sun so that the shadow of the match passes through the center of the dial; at this moment the number “1” will indicate the direction to the south.

Rice. 2. A refined method of orientation by the Sun and the clock

We do not touch upon the theoretical justification of the inaccuracies allowed when orienting by the Sun and the clock. The question will be clear if you turn to an elementary textbook on astronomy or a special guide to spherical astronomy. An explanation can also be found in the mentioned book by Ya. I. Perelman.

It is useful to remember that in mid-latitudes the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest in summer; In winter, the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest. Only twice a year the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets in the west (during the equinoxes).

A very simple and reliable method of orientation is the Polar Star, which always shows the direction north. The error here does not exceed 1–2°. The polar star is located near the so-called celestial pole, i.e. a special point around which the entire starry sky seems to us to revolve. In order to determine the true meridian, this star was used in ancient times. It is found in the sky with the help of the well-known constellation Ursa Major (Fig. 3).

Fig 3. Finding the North Star

The distance between the extreme stars of the “bucket” is mentally plotted in a straight line upwards about five times and the Polar Star is found here: its brightness is the same as the stars that make up the Big Dipper. Polaris is the end of the "bucket handle" of Ursa Minor; the stars of the latter are less bright and difficult to distinguish. It is not difficult to figure out that if the North Star is covered by clouds, and only the Big Dipper is visible, then the direction to the north can still be determined.

The North Star provides an invaluable service to the troops, as it allows not only to determine the sides of the horizon, but also helps to accurately follow the route, serving as a kind of beacon.

However, the situation may be such that, due to cloudiness, neither the Big Dipper nor the Polar Star is visible, but the Moon is visible. You can also determine the sides of the horizon by the Moon at night, although this is a less convenient and accurate method than determination by the North Star. The fastest way is to determine it by the moon and the clock. First of all, it is necessary to remember that the full (round) Moon opposes the Sun, that is, it is opposite the Sun. It follows that at midnight, i.e., according to our time at 1 o’clock, it is in the south, at 7 o’clock - in the west, and at 19 o’clock - in the east; Compared to the Sun, this results in a difference of 12 hours. This difference is not expressed on the watch dial - the hour hand at 1 o'clock or at 13 o'clock will be in the same place on the dial. Consequently, approximately the sides of the horizon can be determined from the full Moon and the clock in the same order as from the Sun and the clock.

Based on the partial Moon and the clock, the sides of the horizon are identified somewhat differently. The operating procedure here is as follows:

1) note the observation time on the clock;

2) divide the diameter of the Moon into twelve equal parts by eye (for convenience, first divide in half, then the desired half into two more parts, each of which is divided into three parts);

3) estimate how many such parts are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon;

4) if the Moon is waxing (the right half of the lunar disk is visible), then the resulting number must be subtracted from the hour of observation; if it decreases (the left side of the disk is visible), then add it. In order not to forget in which case to take the sum and in which the difference, it is useful to remember the following rule: take the sum when the visible crescent of the Moon is C-shaped; in the reverse (P-shaped) position of the visible lunar crescent, the difference must be taken (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Mnemonic rules for introducing an amendment

The sum or difference will show the hour when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon. From here, by pointing at the crescent Moon the place on the dial (but not the hour hand!), which corresponds to the newly obtained hour, and taking the Moon for the Sun, it is easy to find the north-south line.

Example. Observation time 5 hours 30 hours. the diameter of the visible “sickle” of the Moon contains 10/12 parts of its diameter (Fig. 5).

The moon is waning, as its left C-shaped side is visible. Summing up the observation time and the number of parts of the visible “crescent” of the Moon (5 hours 30 minutes + 10). we get the time when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon we are observing (15 hours 30 minutes). We set the division of the dial corresponding to 3 hours. 30 min., in the direction of the Moon.

The dividing line passing between it as a division, the center of the clock and the number “1”. will give the direction of the north-south line.

Rice. 5. Orientation by the partial moon and the clock

It is appropriate to note that the accuracy in determining the sides of the horizon from the Moon and the clock is also very relative. Nevertheless, the field observer will be quite satisfied with this accuracy. Astronomy manuals will help you understand the permissible error.

You can also navigate by the constellations, which seem to form various figures in the sky. To ancient astronomers, these figures resembled the shapes of animals and various objects, which is why they gave the constellations such names as Ursa, Leo, Swan, Eagle, Dolphin, Lyra, Corona, etc. Some constellations got their name in honor of mythical heroes and gods, for example, Hercules, Cassiopeia, etc. There are 88 constellations in the sky.

To navigate by constellations, first of all, you need to know well the starry sky, the location of the constellations, as well as when and in what part of the sky they are visible. We have already met two of the constellations. These are the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, by which the North Star is determined. But the North Star is not the only one suitable for orientation; Other stars can also be used for these purposes.

Ursa Major in our latitudes is located in the northern half of the sky. In the same half of the sky we can see the constellations Cassiopeia (outwardly resembling the letter M or W), Auriga (with the bright star Capella) and Lyra (with the bright star Vega), which are located more or less symmetrically around the North Star (Fig. 6). The intersection of straight mutually perpendicular lines drawn mentally through the constellations Cassiopeia - Ursa Major and Lyra - Auriga gives the approximate position of the North Star. If the Big Dipper is located above the horizon in a “bucket” vertically to the North Star, as shown in Fig. 6, then the “bucket” will indicate the direction to the north; Cassiopeia will be high above your head at this time. The charioteer is to the right, to the east, and Lyra is to the left, to the west. Consequently, you can navigate the terrain even by one of the indicated constellations, if the others are covered by clouds or are not visible due to any other circumstances.

Rice. 6. Constellations in the northern half of the sky

However, after 6 hours, due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the position of the constellations will be different: Lyra will approach the horizon, Ursa Major will move to the right, to the east, Cassiopeia - to the left, to the west, and Auriga will be overhead.

Let us now turn to the southern half of the sky.

Here we will see such constellations as Orion, Taurus, Gemini, Leo, Swan. Due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the position of these constellations will change. Some of them will go below the horizon during the night, while others will appear over the horizon from the east. Due to the annual movement of the Earth around the Sun, the position of the constellations will be different on different days, that is, it will change throughout the year. Therefore, constellations located in the sky far from the celestial pole are visible at one time of the year and not visible at another.

In the sky, the constellation Orion stands out perfectly, having the shape of a large quadrangle, in the middle of which there are three stars in one row (Fig. 7). The upper left star of Orion is called Betelgeuse. In December, around midnight, Orion points almost due south. In January, it is located above the south point around 10 pm.

In Fig. 7 shows the location of other constellations located in the southern half of the winter sky: this is the constellation Taurus with the bright star Aldebaran, Canis Major with the brightest star in our sky - Sirius, Canis Minor with the bright star Procyon, Gemini with two bright stars - Castor and Pollux.

Gemini is located above the south point in December around midnight, Canis Minor in January.

Rice. 7. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (winter)

In spring, the constellation Leo with the bright star Regulus appears in the southern sky. This constellation has the shape of a trapezoid. It can be found along the continuation of a straight line passing from the North Star through the edge of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper (Fig. 8). The constellation Leo is above the south point in March around midnight. In May, around midnight, the constellation Bootes with the bright star Arcturus is located above the point of the south (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Constellations about the southern half of the sky (in spring)

In summer, in the southern sky you can easily spot the constellation Cygnus with the bright star Deneb. This constellation is located near the constellation Lyra and has the appearance of a flying bird (Fig. 9). Below it you can find the constellation Aquila with the bright star Altair. The constellations Cygnus and Aquila appear in the south around midnight during July and August. A faint band of stars known as the Milky Way passes through the constellations Aquila, Cygnus, Cassiopeia, Auriga, and Gemini.

In autumn, the southern part of the sky is occupied by the constellations Andromeda and Pegasus. The stars of Andromeda are elongated in one line. The bright star of Andromeda (Alferap) forms a large square with the three stars of Pegasus (Fig. 9). Pegasus is located above the south point in September around midnight.

In November, the constellation Taurus, shown in Fig. 1, is already approaching the point of the south. 7.

It is useful to remember that during the course of the year all the stars gradually move towards the west and, therefore, in a month some constellation will be located above the point of the south not at midnight, but somewhat earlier. After half a month, the same constellation will appear above the south point an hour earlier than midnight, after a month - two hours earlier, after two months - four hours earlier, etc. In the previous month, the same constellation appeared above the south point and two hours later than midnight, two months ago - four hours later than Patunocha, etc. For example, the outermost stars of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper (by which the position of the Polar Star is determined - see Fig. 3) are directed vertically downward from the Polar Star on the day of autumn equinox around 11 p.m. The same position of the Big Dipper is observed a month later, at the end of October, but already at about 21 o’clock, at the end of November - about 19 o’clock, etc. During the winter solstice (December 22), the “bucket” of the Big Dipper takes a horizontal position at midnight, to the right of the North Star. By the end of March, at the spring equinox, the “bucket” at midnight takes on an almost vertical position and is visible high above your head, up from the North Star. By the time of the summer solstice (June 22), the “bucket” at midnight is again located almost horizontally, but to the left of the North Star.

Rice. 9. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (summer to autumn)

We must take advantage of every suitable opportunity to teach students to quickly and accurately find the main constellations in the sky at different times of the night and year. The leader must not only explain the methods for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies, but must also demonstrate them in practice. It is very important that students themselves practically determine the sides of the horizon using the methods described, only then can they count on success in learning.

It is better to demonstrate different options for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies in the same place, with different positions of the luminaries, so that students can see with their own eyes that the results are the same.

By the way, we note that with the help of a compass and celestial bodies (Sun, Moon), you can also solve the inverse problem - determine the approximate time. To do this you need:

1) take the azimuth from the Sun;

2) divide the azimuth value by 15;

3) add 1 to the result.

The resulting number will indicate the approximate time. The error allowed here, in principle, will be the same as when orienting by the Sun and the clock (see pages 9 and 10).

Examples. 1) Azimuth to the Sun is 195°. Solving: 195:15–13; 13+1=14 hours.

2) Azimuth to the Sun is 66°. We solve: 66:15-4.4; 4.4 + 1 = about 5 1/2 hours.

Time, however, can be determined by the celestial bodies without a compass. We will give some approximate methods, since determining time is important when orienting on the ground.

During the day, you can practice determining time by the Sun, if you remember that the highest position of the Sun occurs at 13 o'clock (at noon). By noticing the position of the Sun many times at different times of the day in a given area, you can eventually develop the skills to determine the time with an accuracy of half an hour. In everyday life, quite often the approximate time is determined by the height of the Sun above the horizon.

At night you can find out the time by the position of the Big Dipper. To do this, you need to mark a line in the sky - an hour “hand”, passing from the North Star to the two extreme stars of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper, and mentally imagine in this part of the sky a clock dial, the center of which will be the North Star (Fig. 10). Time is further defined as follows:

1) count down the time using the celestial “arrow” (in Fig. 10 it will be 7 hours);

2) take the serial number of the month from the beginning of the year with tenths, counting every 3 days as one tenth of the month (for example, October 15th will correspond to the number 10.5);

Rice. 10. Celestial clock

3) add the first two numbers found to each other and multiply the sum by two [in our case it will be (7+10.5) x 2=35];

4) subtract the resulting number from the coefficient equal to 55.3 for the “arrow” of the Big Dipper (55.3-35 = 20.3). The result will be given by the time at the moment (20 hours 20 minutes). If the total was more than 24, then you need to subtract 24 from it.

The coefficient of 55.3 is derived from the specific location of the Big Dipper among other stars in the sky.

Stars of other constellations close to the North Star can also serve as arrows, but the coefficients in such cases will be different numbers. For example, for the “arrow” between the North Star and the brightest star after it, Ursa Minor (the lower outer corner of the “bucket”), the coefficient is 59.1. For the “arrow” between the North Star and the middle, brightest star of the constellation Cassiopeia, the coefficient is expressed as 67.2. To get a more reliable result, it is advisable to determine the time using all three “arrows” and take the average of the three readings.

Methods for determining the sides of the horizon using a compass and celestial bodies are the best and most reliable. Determining the sides of the horizon from various features of local objects, although less reliable, can still be useful in a certain situation. In order to use the various features of objects with the greatest success, you need to study the surrounding area and take a closer look at everyday natural phenomena more often. In this way, students develop observation skills.

In the diaries of travelers, in fiction and scientific literature, in periodicals, in the stories of hunters and pathfinders, there is always valuable material regarding orientation.

The ability to extract from one’s observations and the observations of others everything that can be useful for the student’s combat training is one of the tasks of the teacher.

The ability to navigate by barely noticeable signs is especially developed among northern peoples. “Over the centuries, the northern peoples have developed their own view of distances. Visiting a neighbor located two or three hundred kilometers away is not considered travel.

And off-road doesn't matter. In winter there is a road everywhere. Of course, you need to be able to navigate among a very monochromatic landscape, and sometimes even in a snowstorm, which makes it impossible to distinguish anything except the swirling snow. Under such conditions, any newcomer would risk his life. Only a native of the North will not go astray, guided by some almost indistinguishable signs.”

Special signs must be used carefully and skillfully. Some of them give reliable results only under certain conditions of time and place. Suitable in some conditions, they may be unsuitable in others. Sometimes the problem can be solved only by simultaneous observation of several features.

The vast majority of features are associated with the position of objects in relation to the Sun. The difference in lighting and heating by the sun usually causes certain changes on the sunny or shadow side of an object. However, a number of incoming factors can sometimes disrupt the expected pattern, and then even well-known features will turn out to be unsuitable for orientation purposes.

It is widely believed that you can navigate by using tree branches. It is usually believed that tree branches are more developed in a southerly direction. Meanwhile, observation experience says that it is impossible to navigate by this sign in the forest, since the branches of the trees develop more not towards the south, but towards the free space.

They say that you can navigate by standing alone trees, but here, too, mistakes are often possible. Firstly, you cannot be sure that the tree has been growing separately all along.

Secondly, the formation and general configuration of the crown of an individual tree is sometimes much more dependent on the prevailing winds (see below, page 42). rather than from the sun, not to mention other reasons affecting the growth and development of a tree. This dependence is especially clearly visible in the mountains, where the winds are very strong.

The method of orienting wood growth by annual rings is also well known. It is believed that these rings on the stumps of cut trees standing in the open are wider in the south than in the north. It must be said that no matter how much we observed, we could not detect this pattern. Turning to specialized literature, we found the answer there. It turns out that the width of the wood track, as well as the development of branches on trees, depends not only on the intensity of sunlight, but also on the strength and direction of the winds. Moreover, the width of the rings is uneven not only horizontally, but also vertically; therefore, the pattern of tree ring arrangement may change if the tree is cut at different heights from the ground surface.

We deliberately focused on these features, since they are the ones that are most popular.

Meanwhile, the facts convince us that they should be considered unreliable.

This is not difficult to verify, you just have to observe more.

In the temperate climate zone, the sides of the horizon are easy to determine by the bark and lichens (moss) on the trees; you just need to inspect not one, but several trees. On birch trees, the bark is lighter and more elastic on the southern side than on the northern side (Fig. 11). The difference in color is so striking that you can successfully navigate using the birch bark even in the middle of a sparse forest.

Rice. eleven. Orientation by birch bark

Generally speaking, the bark of many trees is somewhat rougher on the north side than on the south side.

The development of lichen mainly on the northern side of the trunk makes it possible to determine the sides of the horizon from other trees. On some of them the lichen is noticeable at first glance, on others it is visible only upon careful examination. If lichen is present on different sides of the trunk, there is usually more of it on the northern side, especially near the root. Taiga hunters navigate by bark and lichens surprisingly well. However, it should be borne in mind that in winter the lichen can be covered with snow.

War experience shows that the skillful use of forest signs helped to maintain a given direction and maintain the required battle order in the forest. One unit had to go west through the forest on a stormy day; seeing lichens on tree trunks to their left, and trunks without lichens to their right, the soldiers quite accurately followed the direction and completed the task.

The northern slopes of wooden roofs are more covered with green-brown moss than the southern ones. Moss and mold sometimes also develop near drainpipes located on the north side of buildings. Moss and lichen often cover the shady sides of large stones and rocks (Fig. 12); in mountainous areas, as well as where boulder deposits are developed, this sign is common and can be useful. However, when orienting on this basis, it should be borne in mind that the development of lichen and moss in some cases depends to a much greater extent on the prevailing winds that bring rain than on their location in relation to the sun.

Rice. 12. Orientation by moss on a stone

Pine trunks are usually covered with a crust (secondary), which forms earlier on the north side of the trunk and, therefore, extends higher than on the south side. This is especially clearly visible after rains, when the crust swells and turns black (Fig. 13). In addition, in hot weather, resin appears on the trunks of pines and spruces, accumulating more on the south side of the trunks.

Rice. 13. Orientation by pine bark

Ants usually (but not always) make their homes south of the nearest trees, stumps and bushes. The southern side of the anthill is more sloping, and the northern side is steeper (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Anthill navigation

In northern latitudes on summer nights, due to the proximity of the setting sun to the horizon, the northern side of the sky is the lightest, the southern side is the darkest. This feature is sometimes used by pilots when operating at night.

On a polar night in the Arctic, the picture is the opposite: the lightest part of the sky is the southern part, the northern part is the darkest.

In spring, on the northern edges of the forest clearings, the grass grows thicker than on the southern edges; To the south of tree stumps, large stones, and pillars, the grass is thicker and higher than to the north (Fig. 15).

Rice. 15. Orientation on the grass near the stump

In summer, during prolonged hot weather, the grass to the south of these objects sometimes turns yellow and even dries, while to the north of them remains green.

During the ripening period, berries and fruits acquire color earlier on the south side.

Curious are the sunflower and the string, the flowers of which are usually turned towards the sun and turn after its movement across the sky. On rainy days, this circumstance gives the observer some opportunity for rough orientation, since the flowers of these plants are not directed to the north.

In summer, the soil near large stones, individual buildings, and stumps is drier on the south side than on the north; this difference is easy to notice by touch.

The letter “N” (sometimes “C”) on the weather vane indicates north (Fig. 16).

Figure 10. Vane. The letter N points to north

The altars of Orthodox churches and chapels face the east, the bell towers - “from the west; the raised edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the church points to the north, and the lowered edge points to the south (Fig. 17). The altars of Lutheran churches (kirks) also face east, and the bell towers face west. The altars of the Catholic “hostels” face west.

It can be assumed that the doors of Muslim mosques and Jewish synagogues in the European part of the Soviet Union face approximately north. The façade of the shrines faces south. According to the observations of travelers, exits from the yurts are made to the south.

Figure 17. Orientation by the cross on the dome of the church

It is interesting to note that conscious orientation took place during the construction of dwellings, back in the days of pile buildings. Among the Egyptians, orientation during the construction of temples was determined by strict legal provisions; The side faces of the ancient Egyptian pyramids are located in the direction of the sides of the horizon.

Clearings in large forestry enterprises (in forest dachas) are often cut almost strictly along the north-south and east-west lines.

This is very clearly visible on some topographic maps. The forest is divided by clearings into quarters, which in the USSR are usually numbered from west to east and from north to south, so that the first number is in the northwestern corner of the farm, and the last one is in the extreme southeast (Fig. 18).

Rice. 18. Numbering order of forest blocks

The block numbers are marked on the so-called block posts placed at all intersections of the clearings. To do this, the upper part of each pillar is hewn in the form of edges, on which the number of the opposite quarter is burned or inscribed with paint. It is easy to understand that the edge between two adjacent faces with the smallest numbers in this case will indicate the direction to the north (Fig. 19).

Figure 19. Orientation by quarter pillar

This sign can be used as a guide in many other European countries, for example in Germany and Poland. However, it is not superfluous to know that in Germany and Poland forest management numbers the blocks in the reverse order, that is, from east to west. But this will not change the method of determining the north point. In some countries, block numbers are often indicated by inscriptions on stones, on tablets attached to trees and, finally, also on poles.

It should be remembered that for economic reasons, clearings can be cut in other directions (for example, parallel to the direction of the highway or depending on the terrain). In small forest areas and in the mountains this is most often the case. Nevertheless, even in this case, for rough orientation, the indicated sign can sometimes turn out to be useful. When fighting in the forest, the numbers on the quarter posts are also interesting in another respect: they can be used for target designation. To determine the sides of the horizon, cuttings that are usually carried out against the direction of the prevailing wind are also suitable. You can learn more about all this in courses on forest management and silviculture.

The presence of snow creates additional signs for orientation. In winter, snow sticks to buildings more on the north side and thaws faster on the south. Snow in a ravine, hollow, hole on the north side melts earlier than on the south; corresponding thawing can be observed even in human or animal tracks. In the mountains, snow melts faster on the southern slopes. On hillocks and mounds, melting occurs more intensely, also on the southern side (Fig. 20).

Rice. 20.Orientation by melting snow in depressions and on hills

On south-facing slopes in the spring, clearings appear the faster the steeper the slopes are: every extra degree of slope of the area to the south is equivalent to moving the area one degree closer to the equator. The roots of trees and stumps are freed from snow earlier on the south side. On the shady (north) side of objects, snow lasts longer in spring. At the beginning of spring, on the southern side of buildings, hillocks, and stones, the snow has time to thaw a little and move away, while on the northern side it adheres tightly to these objects (Fig. 21).

Rice. 21. Orientation by melting snow on a stone

At the northern edge of the forest, the soil is freed from snow sometimes 10–15 days later than at the southern edge.

In March-April, due to the melting of snow, you can navigate along the holes elongated in a southern direction (Fig. 22), which surround tree trunks, stumps and pillars standing in the open; On the shaded (northern) side of the holes, a ridge of snow is visible. The holes are formed from solar heat reflected and distributed by these objects.

Rice. 22. Hole orientation

It is possible to determine the sides of the horizon by holes in the fall, if the fallen snow has melted from the sun's rays. These holes should not be confused with "concentric depressions formed" by blowing in snowstorms, such as around poles or tree stumps.

In spring, on the slopes facing the sun, the snow mass seems to “bristle,” forming peculiar protrusions (“spikes”) separated by depressions (rns. 23). The projections are parallel to each other, inclined at the same angle to the ground and directed towards noon. The angle of inclination of the protrusions corresponds to the angle of the sun at its highest point. These protrusions and depressions are especially clearly visible on slopes covered with contaminated snow. Sometimes they occur on horizontal or slightly inclined areas of the earth's surface. It is not difficult to guess that they are formed under the influence of the heat of the midday rays of the sun.

Rice. 23. Orientation by snow “spikes” and depressions on the slope

Observing slopes that are differently positioned in relation to the sun's rays can also help navigate the terrain. In spring, vegetation develops earlier and faster on the southern slopes, and later and more slowly on the northern slopes. Under normal conditions, southern slopes are generally drier, less turfed, and the processes of washout and erosion are more pronounced on them. However, this is not always the case. Correctly resolving an issue often requires taking into account many factors.

It has been noted that in many mountainous regions of Siberia, slopes facing south are more gentle, since they are cleared of snow earlier, dry out earlier and are more easily destroyed by rain and snow meltwater flowing down them. Northern slopes, on the contrary, remain under snow cover longer, are better moistened and less destroyed, so they are steeper. This phenomenon is so typical here that in some areas on a rainy day it is possible to accurately determine the cardinal directions by the shape of the slopes.

In desert areas, the moisture that falls on the southern slopes quickly evaporates, so on these slopes the wind blows debris. On northern slopes, protected from the direct influence of the sun, the flutter is less pronounced; Here, mainly physical and chemical processes occur, accompanied by a transformation in the composition of rocks and minerals. This nature of the slopes is observed on the borders of the Gobi Desert, in the Sahara, and on many ridges of the Tien Shan system.

Determining the sides of the horizon directly from the wind is possible only in areas where its direction is constant for a long time. In this sense, trade winds, monsoons and breezes have more than once provided a service to man. In Antarctica, on Adélie land, the south-southeast wind blows so constantly that members of the Mausson expedition (1911–1914) in a snowstorm and in complete darkness unmistakably navigated with the wind; During excursions into the interior of the mainland, travelers preferred to navigate by the wind rather than by a compass, the accuracy of which was greatly influenced by the proximity of the magnetic pole.

It is more convenient to navigate based on the effects of wind on the terrain; To do this, you only need to know the direction of the prevailing wind in a given area.

Traces of wind work are especially clearly visible in the mountains, but in winter they are clearly visible on the plain.

The direction of the prevailing wind can be judged by the inclination of the trunks of most trees, especially on the edges and free-standing trees, in which the inclination is more noticeable; in the steppes of Bessarabia, for example, the trees tilt towards the southeast. All the olive trees in Palestine lean towards the southeast. Under the influence of prevailing winds, a flag-like shape of trees is sometimes formed due to the fact that on the windward side of the trees the buds dry out and the branches do not develop. Such “natural weather vanes,” as Charles Darwin called them, can be seen on the Cape Verde Islands, Normandy, Palestine and other places. It is interesting to note that on the Cape Verde Islands there are trees in which the top, under the influence of the trade wind, is bent at right angles to the trunk. Windfalls are also oriented; in the Subpolar Urals, for example, due to strong northwest winds, they are usually directed to the southeast. The sides of wooden buildings, poles, fences exposed to the prevailing wind are destroyed faster and differ in color from other sides. In places where the wind blows in one specific direction most of the year, its grinding activity is very sharply affected. In rocks that can be weathered (clays, limestones), parallel grooves are formed, elongated in the direction of the prevailing wind and separated by sharp ridges. On the surface of the calcareous plateau of the Libyan Desert, such grooves, polished with sand, reach a depth of 1 m and are elongated in the direction of the dominant wind from north to south. In the same way, niches are often formed in soft rocks, over which harder layers hang in the form of cornices (Fig. 24).

Rice. 24. Orientation by the degree of weathering of rocks (the arrow indicates the direction of the prevailing wind)

In the mountains of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Urals, the Carpathians, the Alps and in the deserts, the destructive action of the wind is very well expressed. Extensive material on this issue can be found in geology courses.

In Western Europe (France, Germany), winds that bring bad weather affect the northwest side of objects most of all.

The effect of wind on mountain slopes varies depending on the position of the slopes in relation to the prevailing wind.

In the mountains, steppe and tundra, the prevailing winter winds that move snow (blizzards, blizzards) have a great influence on the area. The windward slopes of the mountains are usually lightly covered with snow or completely snowless, the plants on them are damaged, and the soil freezes strongly and deeply. On the leeward slopes, on the contrary, snow accumulates.

When the terrain is covered with snow, you can find other signs for orientation on it, created by the work of the wind. Particularly suitable for these purposes are some surface snow formations that occur in various terrain and vegetation conditions. At cliffs and ditches, on the walls facing away from the wind, a beak-shaped snow peak forms on top, sometimes curved downwards (Fig. 25).

Rice. 25. Scheme of snow accumulation near cliffs and ditches (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

On steep walls facing the wind, due to the swirling of the snow at the base, a blowing trench is formed (Fig. 26).

Rice. 26. Scheme of snow accumulation near steep walls facing the wind (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

At small individual elevations (hill, hillock, haystack, etc.) on the leeward side behind a small blowing chute, a flat, tongue-shaped snowdrift is deposited with a steep slope facing the hill and gradually thinning in the opposite direction: on the windward side, with sufficient steepness, a blowing chute is formed . On equally inclined low ridges such as a railway embankment, snow is deposited only at the base of the ridge and is blown away from the top (Fig. 27). However, in high, equally inclined ridges, a snowdrift forms at the top.

Rice. 27. Scheme of snow accumulation near an equally inclined low ridge (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

Regular snow accumulations can also be created near trees, stumps, bushes and other small objects. Near them, a triangular sediment usually forms on the windward side, elongated in the direction of the wind. These wind deposits make it possible to navigate along them in a sparse forest or field.

As a result of the movement of snow by the wind, various surface formations are created in the form of snow accumulations transverse and longitudinal to the wind. Transverse formations include the so-called snow waves (sastrugi) and snow ripples, while longitudinal formations include snow dunes and tongue accumulations. The most interesting of them are snow waves, which are a very common form of snow surface. They are common on the dense surface of snow crust, on the ice of rivers and lakes. These snow waves are white in color, which makes them different from the underlying crust or ice. “The waves of snow on the vast plains are widely used as a guide to travel. Knowing the direction of the wind that created the waves, you can use the location of the waves as a compass along the way.”

S.V. Obruchev notes that in Chukotka he had to navigate the sastrugi while traveling at night. In the Arctic, sastrugi are often used as landmarks along the way.

Frost (long ice and snow threads and brushes) forms on tree branches mainly from the direction of the prevailing wind.

The Baltic lakes are characterized by uneven overgrowing as a result of the influence of prevailing winds. The leeward, western shores of the lakes and their bays directed to the west are overgrown with peat and turned into peat bogs. On the contrary, the eastern, windward, wave-cut shores are free of thickets.

Knowing the direction of the wind constantly blowing in a given area, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the shape of dunes or dunes (Fig. 28). As is known, accumulations of sand of this type are usually short ridges, generally elongated perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The convex part of the dune faces the direction of the wind, while its concave part is leeward: the “horns” of the dune are extended in the direction where the wind blows. The slopes of dunes and dunes facing the prevailing wind are gentle (up to 15°), the leeward ones are steep (up to 40°).

Rice. 28. Orientation:

A - along the dunes; B - along the dunes (arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing wind)

Their windward slopes are compacted by the wind, grains of sand are pressed tightly against one another; leeward slopes are crumbling and loose. Under the influence of wind, sand ripples often form on windward slopes in the form of parallel ridges, often branching and perpendicular to the direction of the wind; There are no sand ripples on the leeward slopes. Dunes and dunes can sometimes connect with each other and form dune chains, that is, parallel ridges stretched transversely to the direction of the prevailing winds. The height of dunes and dunes ranges from 3–5 m to 30–40 m.

There are sand accumulations in the form of ridges, elongated in the direction of the prevailing winds.

These are the so-called ridge sands; their rounded ridges are parallel to the wind; they have no division of slopes into steep and gentle.

The height of such longitudinal dunes can reach several tens of meters, and their length can reach several kilometers.

Dune formations are usually found along the shores of seas, large lakes, rivers, and in deserts. In deserts, longitudinal dunes are more widespread than transverse ones. Dunes, as a rule, are found only in deserts. Sand accumulations of various types are found in the Baltic states, in the Trans-Caspian deserts, near the Aral Sea, near lake. Balkhash and other places.

There are numerous sand formations in the deserts of North Africa, Central Asia, and Australia.

In our Central Asian deserts (Kara-Kum, Kyzyl-Kum), where northern winds are dominant, ridge sands most often extend in the meridional direction, and dune chains - in the latitudinal direction. In Xinjiang (Western China), where easterly winds predominate, the dune chains extend approximately in the meridional direction.

In the deserts of North Africa (Sahara, Libyan Desert), sand ridges are also oriented in accordance with the direction of the prevailing winds. If you mentally follow the direction from the Mediterranean Sea to the interior of the mainland, then at first the sand ridges are oriented approximately along the meridian, and then they deviate more and more to the west and at the borders of Sudan they take a latitudinal direction. Thanks to strong summer winds blowing from the south, near the latitudinal ridges (near the borders of Sudan), the northern slope is steep and the southern slope is gentle. Sand ridges here can often be traced for hundreds of kilometers.

In the Australian deserts, sand ridges stretch in the form of many weakly sinuous lines parallel to each other, separated from one another by an average distance of about 400 m. These ridges also reach a length of several hundred kilometers. The extent of the sand ridges exactly corresponds to the directions of the prevailing winds in different parts of Australia. In the southeastern deserts of Australia, the ridges are elongated meridionally, the northern ones deviate to the northwest, and in the deserts of western Australia they extend in the latitudinal direction.

In the southwestern part of the Indian Thar Desert, the dune ridges have a northeasterly strike, but in the northeastern part, the general direction of the dunes is northwest.

For orientation purposes, small sand accumulations that form near various obstacles (surface unevenness, block, stone, bush, etc.) can also be used.

Near the bushes, for example, a sand spit appears, stretched with a sharp edge in the direction of the wind. Near impenetrable barriers, sand sometimes forms small mounds and blowing grooves like snow, but the process here is more complicated and depends on the height of the barrier, the size of the sand grains and the strength of the wind.

The regular arrangement of sand accumulations in deserts is clearly visible from an airplane, on aerial photographs, and topographic maps. Sand ridges sometimes make it easier for pilots to maintain the correct direction of flight.

In some areas, you can also navigate by other features that have a narrow local significance. Especially many of these signs can be observed among vegetation covering slopes of various exposures.

On the northern slopes of the dunes, south of Liepaja (Libava), plants of wet places grow (moss, blueberries, lingonberries, crowberries), while dry-loving plants (moss moss, heather) grow on the southern slopes; on the southern slopes the soil cover is thin, with sand exposed in places.

In the southern Urals, in the ashes of the forest-steppe, the southern slopes of the mountains are rocky and covered with grass, while the northern slopes are covered with soft sediments and overgrown with birch forests. In the south of the Buguruslan region, the southern slopes are covered with meadows, and the northern ones with forest.

In the Upper Angara River basin, steppe areas are confined to the southern slopes; other slopes are covered with taiga forest. In Altai, the northern slopes are also much richer in forest.

The north-facing slopes of the river valleys between Yakutsk and the mouth of the Mai are densely covered with larch and almost devoid of grass; the slopes facing south are covered with pine or typical steppe vegetation.

In the mountains of the Western Caucasus, pine grows on the southern slopes, and beech, spruce, and fir grow on the northern slopes. In the western part of the North Caucasus, beech covers the northern slopes, and oak covers the southern slopes. In the southern part of Ossetia, spruce, fir, yew, and beech grow on the northern slopes, and ssna and oak grow on the southern slopes. “Throughout the entire Transcaucasus, starting from the valley of the Riopa River and ending with the valley of the Kura tributary in Azerbaijan, oak forests are settled with such consistency on the southern slopes that by the distribution of oak on foggy days without a compass one can accurately determine the countries of the world.”

In the Far East, in the South Ussuri region, the velvet tree is found almost exclusively on the northern slopes; oak dominates on the southern slopes. Coniferous forest grows on the western slopes of Snkhote-Alin, and mixed forest grows on the eastern slopes.

In the Kursk region, in the Lgov district, oak forests grow on the southern slopes, while birch predominates on the northern slopes.

Oak is therefore very characteristic of southern slopes.

In Transbaikalia, at the height of summer, on the northern slopes, permafrost was observed at a depth of 10 cm, while on the southern slopes it was at a depth of 2–3 m.

The southern slopes of the Bulgunnyakhs (rounded, dome-shaped hills up to 30–50 m high, folded inside with ice and covered with frozen soil on top, found in northern Asia and North America) are usually steep, covered with grass or complicated by landslides, the northern ones are gentle, often forested.

Vineyards are grown on south-facing slopes.

In mountains with sharply defined relief forms, forests and meadows on the southern slopes usually rise higher than on the northern ones. In temperate and high latitudes in the mountains covered with eternal snow, there is a snow line. On southern slopes it is higher than on northern slopes; however, there may be deviations from this rule.

The number of special signs by which you can navigate is not limited to the listed examples - there are many more of them. But the above material clearly shows what an abundance of simple signs an observer has at his disposal when navigating the terrain.

Some of these features are more reliable and applicable everywhere, others are less reliable and are suitable only in certain conditions of time and place.

One way or another, all of them must be used skillfully and thoughtfully.

Notes:

Azimuth- a word of Arabic origin ( orassumút), meaning paths, roads.

By government decree on June 16, 1930, the clocks we live by in the USSR were moved 1 hour ahead compared to solar time; Therefore, for us, noon begins not at 12, but at 13 o’clock (the so-called maternity time).

Bubnov I., Kremp A., Folimonov S., Military topography, ed. 4th, Military Publishing House, 1953

Nabokov M. and Vorontsov-Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of high school, ed. 4th, 1940

Kazakov S., Course in Spherical Astronomy, ed. 2nd, Gostekhizdat, 1940

You can divide the radius of the Moon into six equal parts, the result will be the same.

Kazakov S. Course of spherical astronomy, ed. 2nd, 1940; Nabokov M. and Vorontsov- Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of high school, ed. 4th 1940

Shchukin I., General morphology of land, vol. II, GONTI, 1938, p. 277.

Tkachenko M.,- General forestry, Goslestekhizdat. 1939, pp. 93–94.

Kosnachev K., Bulguniyakhi,“Nature” No. 11. 1953, p. 112.

Between them are the intermediate sides of the horizon. The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent objects is called orientation.

Ways to navigate the terrain

Determining directions according to the plan

When depicting directions on a plan, we conventionally consider the top edge of a sheet of paper to be northern, the bottom edge to be southern, the right to be eastern, and the left to be western. On the left side of the sheet, an arrow is drawn with the point up, the letter C (north) is written above it, and the letter Y (south) is written below it.

If you put a point on the plan and draw a line upward from it, you will get an image of the direction to the north; a line drawn down will show the direction to the south; to the right - to the east, to the left - to the west. Intermediate directions can also be shown between these lines. Knowing how directions are determined, you can determine the directions of objects and indications. On the plan. For example, in what direction from the village of Elagino is a wooden bridge across a ravine? To complete this task you need to find the center of the village. The bridge is located below and to the right of the center, that is, southeast of the village of Elagino.

How to determine the direction of curved lines, such as a river, road, land boundaries? To do this, they must be divided into straight segments and the directions of these segments determined.

What do you see around you at the dacha; by the river; on the sea; from the window of an apartment in the city?

Our planet is very large, so we always see only a small part of it.

In open spaces - in a field, on the seashore - you can see that somewhere far away the sky meets the earth. In the city, our gaze always rests on some objects.

The space visible to the eye is called the horizon (from the Greek word “horizon” - limiting), and the imaginary line limiting it is called the horizon line.

If you move forward, the horizon line will move away all the time. It is impossible to reach it.

On level ground, a person sees 4-5 km around him, and from a height of 100 m the horizon expands to 36 km.

We won't get lost in familiar terrain. Going to school, to friends, to the country, we quickly find our way. We can easily explain to a visitor how to get to the museum and find the right street. At the same time, we use well-remembered objects (houses, signs, trees), as well as the concepts of “left”, “right”, “up”, “down”, “forward”, “back”.

All these objects and concepts serve us to determine location on the ground.

How can we understand in an unfamiliar area - in the steppe, sea, deep forest - where we are and in which direction we need to go? First of all, it is important to remember that there are four
the main sides of the horizon: north, south, east and west. The sides of the horizon are abbreviated in capital letters: north - N, south - S, east - E, west - W.

Between the main sides of the horizon there are intermediate ones: northwest (NW), northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW).

Knowing the sides of the horizon, you can determine your location.

The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and individual objects is called orientation.

You can navigate the area in different ways: with the help of instruments, such as a compass, by the stars, and also by local features: trees, anthills, annual rings on stumps, etc.

1. What is the horizon called?
2. Explain what a horizon line is.
3. List the main and intermediate sides of the horizon.
4. In what direction is the school from your house? Which sides of the horizon do the windows of your apartment face?
5. What is orientation?
6. What methods of orienteering do you know?
7. Name the objects that are located in the north, south, west and east of your locality.

This is the space visible to the eye. The imaginary line that limits the horizon is called the horizon line. There are main (north, south, west, east) and intermediate (northwest, northeast, southeast, southwest) sides of the horizon. The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and individual objects is called orientation.

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