Archives of Russian emigrants at the Hoover Institution. Russia in American archives

A political research center affiliated with Stanford University. Founded in 1919 by Herbert Hoover (1929–1933, 31st President of the United States), who donated a large sum to the university to create a library and archive of materials dedicated to the First World War. Over time, the institute has grown into an important research center with long-term analytical programs in the fields of politics and economics.

The archives of the Hoover Institution are one of the largest foreign repositories on the history of Russian emigration.

GUMENSKAYA E. A. – Stanford University. Hoover Institution Archives. Stanford, pc. California, USA.

The collection includes biographical documents and materials related to the artistic and literary work of E. A. Gumenskaya. Of particular interest is the extensive correspondence with relatives in the USSR and other countries for the period 1920–1980.

YURIEV V.G. – Stanford University. Hoover Institution Archives. Stanford, pc. California, USA.

Materials related to the life and work of the architect V. G. Yuryev are part of the personal fund of his wife Alexandra Andreevna Voronina (1905–1993). A significant part of the archive consists of materials dedicated to A. A. Voronina’s first husband, Norwegian diplomat Vidkun Quisling...

Description of collections

The Hoover Archives contains approximately fifty million documents. We estimate that about 25% of the collections, or 12.5 million documents, are in Slavic languages. The vast majority of the Russian collections were entrusted to the Hoover Institution by emigrants, primarily those who left Russia during the Revolution and Civil War, as well as emigrants who left Russia during World War II and recent emigrants of the so-called “Third Wave.” Visitors can use all archive collections free of charge for their scientific work. The only exceptions are collections, access to which is limited to their previous owners. Detailed inventories for many collections of Russian emigrants, for example those of General Wrangel or N. N. Golovin, can be viewed on the Internet at http://sunsite2.berkeley.edu/egibin/oac/hoover. Questions can be addressed by email [email protected].

Notes on the history of the archive and its Russian collections

The founder of the Hoover Institution, Herbert Hoover (1874-1964), became interested in Russia as a business partner in 1909-1914. Together with his brother Theodore and his wife Lou, he traveled extensively throughout Russia, investing in the development of mines and copper smelters in the Urals. They also considered investing in the Maikop oil field in the Caucasus and gold mining in Siberia. Little is known about this period of Hoover's life, but from documents we know that he lived on the estate of Baron Meller-Zakomelsky in Kyshtym during the modernization of the baron's mines. It was there that he met talented Russian engineers and developed deep respect for them. There he learned about the large-scale labor movement on the eve of the First World War.

Hoover was very aware of the political unrest in Tsarist Russia. It is important to remember that by 1913, Hoover had already begun to wind down his entrepreneurial activities in order to direct his indomitable energies to public service. When World War I began, Hoover felt an urgent need to engage in public service and stopped working in the mining industry. Most of all, he wanted to provide food to the civilian population affected by the war. While the fight for human rights had not yet found its place in the public consciousness, it was human rights that occupied Hoover most of all.

From 1914 he helped civilians in Western Europe. He wanted to help the civilian population of Poland at the very beginning of the war, but it was only in 1919 that he was finally able to engage in Eastern Europe and send his mission to organize food in the eastern regions of Poland, which suffered during the Russian-Polish conflict. The Hoover Institution was officially founded in 1919 and its purpose was to collect materials relating to the great war and its aftermath.

In 1920, an energetic curator of Russian collections named Frank Golder was hired by the Hoover Institution. Frank Golder Frank Golder (born in 1877 near Odessa, died in 1929 in Stanford) was born in the Russian Empire, but was taken to America as a child. Little is known about his personal life. He knew Russian well, but it was not his native language. Although he grew up in a very poor family, his teachers and mentors took notice of his talent and encouraged his love of history, so that he was eventually able to obtain a doctorate from Harvard, where he specialized in Russian history under under the leadership of the legendary Archibald Carey Coolidge. He also studied Russian history with T. Scheimann in 1904 in his newly founded seminary in Berlin and seems to have been well acquainted with the pre-revolutionary Russian emigration that settled there. He was a tireless researcher and returned to Russia to work with archives in 1914 and 1917. A born collector both by intuition and education, he had already begun collecting Russian art posters and acquiring copies of Russian documents when Herbert Hoover hired him in 1920. That same year, Golder immediately sailed to Europe in the hope of eventually obtaining a visa to enter Soviet Russia. He managed to win the trust of the defeated class, especially the intelligentsia, but he collaborated with no less success with the new Bolshevik bodies.

He arrived in Russia in 1921 with the official task of acquiring documents relating to the Great War, the Russian Revolution, the Civil War and the Bolshevik State. Being a very pleasant person, Golder quickly concluded an agreement with A.V. Lunacharsky and N.N. Pokrovsky on the acquisition of one copy of all official publications of the People's Commissariat of Education. He was a tireless collector of daily and local newspapers. He persuaded K. Radek to donate one of his documents to the archive. Golder came to Russia only five times. No less valuable than his trips to Russia are Golder’s reports on conversations in Paris with P.B. Struve, P.N Milyukov, V.A. Maksakov, A.F. Kerensky, A.N. Benoit. Golder's reports were constantly read by Herbert Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce, as well as by employees of the US Department of Foreign Affairs. The papers of the listed prominent figures of the Russian emigration are now kept at the Hoover Institution (see: War. Revolution and Peace in Russia: The Passages of Frank Colder, 1914-1927, edited by Terence Emmons and Berlrand Patenaude. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1992). On board the ship "Emperor" on the way to Europe during the first trip on behalf of H. Hoover, Golder became friends with the scientist and White Army general Nikolai Nikolaevich Golovin. With his usual charm, Golder was able to convince the well-connected Golovin to assist him in acquiring the collections, and thus the emigrant enterprise was set in motion. N.N. Golovin N.N. Golovin lived in Paris and officially acquired materials for the Hoover Institution from January 1926 to 1940. With his direct participation, documents from at least fifteen official Tsarist diplomatic and military organizations were acquired, including documents from the Russian Embassy in Paris, including materials Security department (Okhranka) of the embassy. In addition, he acquired the collections of seventeen leaders of the Russian emigration, among which the papers of M.P. are of particular interest. Girsa (General Wrangel’s main representative to the Allies), B.V. Gerua (head of the diplomatic mission of General Yudenich to the Allies), papers of General N.N. himself. Yudenich and General E.K. Miller (General Wrangel's representative to the Allies). Golovin managed to acquire Sergei Botkin’s papers related to the Russian emigration in Berlin. This collection is an important source for studying the early days of the first wave of emigration and the internal politics of emigrants. This collection also contains materials about the Romanov impostors. The most impressive acquisition is probably the collection of military documents of General Peter Wrangel.

In 1947, three years after the death of General Golovin, his son Mikhail Golovin transferred his father’s works and correspondence to the Hoover Institution, including the manuscript in English of his large book “The Sociology of War.”

From the very beginning, immigrants worked passionately at the Hoover Institution, such as Dmitry Krasovsky, who received a law degree in Russia and a degree in library science from the University of California, Berkeley. He pioneered the cataloging of Russian collections and worked in the Hoover Institution library from 1924 until his retirement in 1947. During this period, several Russian translators and editors worked at the institute (among them Ksenia Yudina and Elena Varnek). They prepared valuable memoirs for publication, for example: the book “From My Past” by rpa Vladimir Nikolaevich Kokovtsev, Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1911-1914. (published in 1935 by Stanford University), “Features and Silhouettes of the Past” by the statesman of Tsarist Russia Vladimir Iosifovich Gurko (Stanford, 1939), “The Life of a Chemist” by Vladimir I. Ipatiev (Stanford, 1946). These documents continue to arouse keen interest. Gurko's memoirs were recently published in Russia in the original language by the New Literary Review publishing house. The Hoover Archives continued to expand its collections in the post-war years.

The harsh anti-communist position of the founders of the institute enjoyed the trust of emigrants. Nicholas de Basili, head of the diplomatic department in the office of the headquarters of Nicholas II, first lived in Paris, and then finally settled in Uruguay. After de Basili's death, her widow sent the collection he had collected to the archives of the Hoover Institution. This collection includes one of the drafts of the abdication of Nicholas II.

Boris I. Nikolaevsky

In 1963, we acquired the collection of the legendary archivist and collector, former Menshevik Boris I. Nikolaevsky, one of the most important emigrant collections. From 1919 to 1921 Nikolaevsky worked as director of the Revolutionary Historical Archive in Moscow. Nikolaevsky was arrested along with other prominent Mensheviks and after his release began to work at the Moscow Institute of Marxism-Leninism, being at a safe distance from it in Berlin. Later he went through the usual emigrant route: Berlin. Paris, then New York. After Nikolaevsky placed his collection in the Hoover Archives, he moved to Stanford. He died three years later. His wife and long-time collaborator, Anna Mikhailovna Burgina, supervised his collection until her death in 1982. Over the past 30 years, scientists have been more interested in the materials of Nikolaevsky’s collection than in the materials of all other collections. It includes documents of such political figures as I. Tsereteli and L. Trotsky, as well as important materials related to Russian culture. Nina Berberova said that. when she was in the early 1950s. arrived as a poor refugee in New York, Nikolaevsky offered her a few dollars for her correspondence. And she had no choice but to accept this offer. She later wrote a poem about her trip to the Hoover Institution and her encounter with the letters twenty years later. Berberova felt both admiration and envy for the tenacity with which Nikolaevsky collected documents related to the life of the Russian emigration (see; Carol Ledenham, Guide to the Collections of the Hoover Institution Archives Relating to Imperial Russia, the Russian Revolution and Civil War . and the first Linigration (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986). From Golder to Nikolaevsky, the Hoover Archives staff had an unwritten common goal: to preserve a lost world by any means necessary and prevent the distortion of historical facts.

Collaboration with the Museum of Russian Culture in San Francisco

Many emigrant documents disappeared during the Second World War, so in the post-war years there was an urgent need to collect what had survived. The Museum of Russian Culture in San Francisco was founded in 1948 to preserve documents of Russian history and objects of Russian culture. Over the past 50 years, the museum has acquired unique historical materials, primarily related to Russian post-revolutionary emigration, as well as pre-revolutionary Russia and the period of the civil war. A small amount of materials, mainly memoirs of second-wave emigrants and correspondence from the 1920s -1930s, reflects Soviet life. In 1999, the Hoover Institution received a generous grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities to undertake a joint project to process and microfilm the most important collections of the Museum of Russian Culture. The main goal of the project is to ensure, by the summer of 2001, scientific work with microfilms of the museum's collections in the reading room of the Hoover Archives. The originals are kept in the museum. The most important collections of the Museum of Russian Culture are those of Belchenko, Volkov, and Gins. The collection of Andrey Belchenko, Russian and then Portuguese Consul General in China, is one of the largest and most complete collections of the museum. It consists mainly of diaries, notebooks and thematic folders, which give a detailed picture of life in Hankou in the years 1918-1946. Due to the fact that in the 1920s. Hankou was for some time the capital of the Chinese Nationalists, and these materials are of invaluable value to scholars studying the history of China. Specialists in Russian emigration will be interested in Belchenko's thematic folders, reflecting the life of a small (about 400 people) Russian colony in Hankou, as well as the life of Russians in Shanghai. Of great interest is information about the participation of Soviet advisers in the Chinese national movement.| The poet Boris Volkov was an agent of the Siberian government in Mongolia during the civil war. His activities and adventures are reflected in the drafts of an unpublished autobiographical novel, Called to Heaven. The novel describes the situation in Mongolia and shows the devastating impact the Russian conflict had on this country, especially the activities of General Baron R.F. Ungern-Sternberg. Volkov's first wife, Elena Petrovna Witte, was the daughter of a former Russian adviser to the Mongol government, and the novel is based in part on her diaries. Volkov arrived in the United States in 1923 and worked primarily as a longshoreman, day laborer, and journalist for Russian-language newspapers. Georgy Konstantinovich Gins, author of the book “Siberia, Allies and Kolchak” (Beijing, 1921) and a member of the Kolchak government, was a specialist in legal philosophy, political scientist, economist, and historian. A student of Lev Petrazhitsky, he was in the 20s and 1930s. continued the traditions of his teacher at the Faculty of Law of Harbin University, in the creation of which he participated.

In 1941, he emigrated to the United States, where he taught at the University of California at Berkeley and wrote books (published and unpublished) on the current situation in the Soviet Union, Russian history, culture and jurisprudence. The collections of the Museum of Russian Culture and the Hoover Institution complement each other. For example, the Hoover Institution translated and published Ipatiev’s memoirs in English, and the Museum houses the original manuscript in Russian. I have wanted to find these manuscripts for a long time.

The Hoover Archives has a collection of Geans, and another portion of his papers is housed in the Museum. By placing microfilm of the Museum's archival collections in Hoover, we brought both halves of the picture together. Preserving the heritage of Russian emigrants The acquisition of collections of the first wave of emigration has been going on for more than 80 years. The archive recently received new material from Wrangel's family, including letters that Wrangel wrote to his wife in 1917, when he witnessed the ranks of Russian troops during the First World War. The family of Anastasia Nikolaevna Romanova’s friend recently donated to the archive letters that the Grand Duchesses wrote from prison in Yekaterinburg and Tobolsk. Small photographs of the royal children are attached to the pages of the letters, and dried flowers are inserted between the pages. These letters were taken out by the addressee's daughter-in-law literally under her blouse. Since then they have been kept in a bank safe. The owners of the letters refused to accept payment for their treasures; It was important for them to know that the letters were appreciated and would be carefully stored in the archive.

Recently, we have been collecting materials from more recent emigrants and dissidents with great diligence. Andrei Sinyavsky came to the Hoover Institution and enjoyed working with the collection of literary critic Gleb Struve. In 1966, many employees of the Hoover Institution were seriously concerned about the arrest of Sinyavsky, so everyone considered it a matter of honor to help him with his work after he found himself abroad. He told the archive staff how his father participated in the work of the Hoover Famine Relief Commission (FRA) and his later tried, accused, among other crimes, of having connections with Hoover. After Sinyavsky's death, his widow contacted us to jointly preserve his legacy. And the Hoover Archives, of course, really wanted to help her with this.

Radio Liberty

The emigrants created their own vibrant culture, which influenced the culture of their host countries and indirectly the culture of their native land. Over time, all this resulted in a fascinating dialogue between the emigration and the intelligentsia in the Soviet Union.

The Hoover Archives tried to collect documents indicating the existence of such an elusive but important dialogue. The earliest evidence of such a dialogue is the tiny issues of the Menshevik magazine Socialist Messenger, edited by Nikolaevsky, the reduced size of which made it possible to transport them across the border, as well as NTS leaflets. With the start of Radio Liberty, relations became more dynamic. Samizdat was a special area of ​​Russian intellectual life, and much of it eventually found its way to the West. Often Russian journalists on Radio Liberty received such homemade publications and broadcast their texts to the Soviet Union from Munich. The enormous volume of Radio Liberty business and broadcast documents that were transferred to the Hoover Archives from Washington and Prague reflect the work of perhaps several hundred expatriate intellectuals. One of the founding documents of Radio Liberty, dated 1950, is marked with the names of Boris Nikolaevsky and Alexander Kerensky. This new acquisition constitutes the largest collection in the Hoover Archives and is connected by invisible threads to many earlier acquisitions. All these disparate pages from different sources put together offer researchers a detailed picture of the Cold War. Conclusion In a sense, we are putting together a huge puzzle, the pieces of which arrived in our archive from Harbin (China), Paris, Frankfurt, Prague and other places. Tracing the interconnection of these individual parts is an extremely interesting task, but the picture still remains fragmentary. The next step will be to connect the Hoover materials with documents from other repositories.

According to the agreement between the Hoover Institution and Rosarkhiv, signed in 1992 by the deputy director of the Hoover Institution, Charles Palm, most of the most important emigrant collections of our archive were captured on microfilm. A complete set of microfilms is now stored in Moscow and Novosibirsk. Reviving old traditions, the Hoover Institution Publishing House publishes memoirs and correspondence of Russian emigrants in collaboration with scientists from both Russia and the United States.

Fortunately. The development of technology now provides opportunities for the exchange of information scattered throughout the world by the Russian diaspora. And the staff of the Hoover Institution look forward to the future with hope in anticipation of new joint projects to reunite the wonderful documents of the Russian emigration.

Danielson E.

15.06.2002

Danielson E. Archives of Russian emigrants at the Hoover Institution // Bulletin of the Archivist. - 2001. - 1. - P. 202-211

This article was prepared on the basis of my presentation at the conference “Foreign Archival Russia”, organized by Rosarkhiv in Moscow on November 16-17, 2000. The Russian text was prepared by Laura Soroka and Anatoly Shmelev. The author expresses deep gratitude to the Head of the Federal Archival Service V.P. Kozlov for the opportunity to offer this information to the attention of the wider scientific community of Russia.

Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

Hoover Institution for War, Revolution and Peace(English) Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace listen)) is a political research center in the United States, part of the Stanford University system.

Founded in 1919 by Herbert Hoover as a library of materials on the First World War. Hoover amassed a large collection of materials related to early 20th-century history and donated them to Stanford, his alma mater, to establish a "library of war, revolution and peace." Over time, the library has grown into an important research center with long-term analytical programs in the fields of politics and economics.

The Hoover Institution Library is one of the largest foreign repositories on the history of Russia during the First World War and the October Revolution. Among these documents are personal funds and individual documents of such prominent public and political figures of Russia and the white movement as General P. N. Wrangel, A. F. Kerensky, General L. G. Kornilov, Prince G. E. Lvov, Count V N. Kokovtsov, Russian ambassador in Paris V. A. Maklakov, Russian diplomat M. N. Girs, General N. N. Yudenich and many others.

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Excerpt describing the Hoover Institution

As a library of materials dedicated to the First World War. Hoover amassed a large collection of materials related to early 20th-century history and donated them to Stanford, his alma mater, to establish a "library of war, revolution and peace." Over time, the library has grown into an important research center with long-term analytical programs in the fields of politics and economics.

The Hoover Institution Library is one of the largest foreign repositories on the history of Russia during the First World War and the October Revolution. Among these documents are personal funds and individual documents of such prominent public and political figures of Russia and the white movement as General P. N. Wrangel, A. F. Kerensky, General L. G. Kornilov, Prince G. E. Lvov, Count V N. Kokovtsov, Russian ambassador in Paris V. A. Maklakov, Russian diplomat M. N. Girs, General N. N. Yudenich and many others.

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The article indicates editions of Stalin's works.

Vladimir Konstantinovich Bukovsky (born December 30, 1942, Belebey, Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, USSR) - Russian writer, political and public figure. One of the founders of the dissident movement in the USSR. He spent a total of 12 years in prison and forced treatment. In 1976, the Soviet authorities exchanged Bukovsky for the leader of the Chilean communists, Luis Corvalan, after which Bukovsky moved to the UK and lives in Cambridge.

In 2007, he was nominated as a candidate for the presidency of Russia in the 2008 elections, but his candidacy was not registered by the Central Election Commission. In 2008, he took part in the organization of the United Democratic Movement "Solidarity", and in 2009 he became a member of the movement's governing body - the Bureau of the Federal Political Council "Solidarity". In 2014, the Russian Foreign Ministry denied Bukovsky Russian citizenship.

Burgina Anna Mikhailovna (February 9, 1899, Bialystok, Grodno province, Russian Empire - October 24, 1982, Menlo Park, California, USA) - historian, archivist, bibliographer, publicist.

The wife of I. G. Tsereteli, in her second marriage she was married to B. I. Nikolaevsky.

Baron Pyotr Nikolaevich Wrangel (August 15 (August 27), 1878, Novoaleksandrovsk, Kovno province, Russian Empire - April 25, 1928, Brussels, Belgium) - Russian military leader, participant in the Russo-Japanese and First World Wars, one of the main leaders of the White movement in years of the Civil War. Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in Crimea and Poland (1920). General Staff Lieutenant General (1918).

He received the nickname “black baron” for his traditional (since September 1918) everyday uniform - a black Cossack Circassian coat with gazyrs.

Timothy Garton Ash CMG (eng. Timothy Garton Ash; b. July 12, 1955, London) is a British historian, author of books and publications on the politics and modern history of Central and Eastern Europe. Director of the European Studies Center at St. Anthony's College (Oxford University), supernumerary member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences.

Herbert Clark Hoover (Eng. Herbert Clark Hoover, August 10, 1874, West Branch, Iowa - October 20, 1964, New York) - 31st President of the United States from 1929 to 1933 from the Republican Party.

Hoover Tower (eng. Hoover Tower) 285 feet (87 m) is a building on the campus of Stanford University in Stanford, California. The Tower houses the libraries and archives of the Hoover Institution of War, Revolution and Peace.

The Hoover Tower was completed in 1941, Stanford's 50th anniversary year. It was designed by architect Arthur Brown Jr.

The tower has a carillon of 48 bells cast in Belgium and the Netherlands; the general public is not allowed into the top of the tower when the bells are ringing. The largest bell weighs 2.5 tons. The first nine floors of the stack library tower and the next three floors are used for offices. The exiled Alexander Solzhenitsyn lived on the 11th floor for some time at the invitation of Stanford University before he moved in 1976.

The Hoover Tower receives approximately 200 visitors per day, and a nominal fee is charged to non-students. The observation deck platform is 250 feet (76 m) above the ground and also provides a sweeping view of the Stanford University campus and the surrounding area. On clear days you can see all the way to the distant San Francisco skyline. The tower observation deck is open daily from 10:00 to 16:00, but is closed during school breaks.

Alexander Zawisza (Polish: Aleksander Zawisza; December 12, 1896, Panevezys - March 28, 1977, London) - Polish political, statesman and diplomatic figure, Prime Minister of the Polish Government in exile (1965-1970), lawyer.

Markos Kounalakis (Greek: Μάρκος Κουναλάκης, English: Markos Kounalakis; born 1956, San Francisco, California, USA) is a famous American journalist, veteran of print and broadcast journalism, and writer. The most notable period in Kounalakis's decades-long career was the Iron Curtain era in the years before and after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War. He is currently the president and publisher emeritus of the non-profit political liberal magazine Washington Monthly, a senior foreign fellow at the Center for Media, Data and Society at Central European University, a visiting fellow at the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, and a visiting newspaper columnist. The Sacramento Bee and McClatchy-Tribune News, where he writes on international relations and foreign policy. He is vice president of the AKT Development corporation, owned by his father-in-law, developer Angelo Tsakopoulos. It has an h-index of 4 and has been cited 40 times.

In 2002, The New York Times named Kounalakis a "White Knight" for preserving the famous Washington Monthly magazine. Together with editor Paul Glastris, he modernized the publication to regain its former glory and influence, making it "the foremost must-read" in Washington, according to political commentator and media personality James Carville. The magazine's revelation of former U.S. Secretary of Education William Bennett's gambling problem brought early attention to the Kounalakis-Glastris team.

In early 2017, U.S. President Barack Obama appointed Kounalakis to the J. William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board.

Eleni Tsakopoulos-Kunalakis (English Eleni Tsakopoulos Kounalakis, Greek version of the name - Eleni Tsakopoulos-Kunalaki (Greek Ελένη Τσακοπούλου-Κουναλάκη); born. March 3, 1966, Sacramento, California, USA) - American diplomat and politician, US Ambassador to Hungary , Lieutenant Governor of California. The first Greek American to serve as US Ambassador and the first woman to serve as Lieutenant Governor of California.

Dmitry Vladimirovich Pospielovsky (eng. Dimitry Pospielovsky; January 13, 1935, Ryasniki village, Polish Republic - September 12, 2014, Mount Hope, Hamilton) - Canadian historian, publicist, economist and Sovietologist of Ukrainian origin. Great-grandson of the famous teacher Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky.

Donald Henry Rumsfeld (English: Donald Henry Rumsfeld, b. July 9, 1932, Evanston, Illinois) - American Republican politician, Secretary of Defense in 1975-1977 (Gerald Ford administration) and in 2001-2006 (George Bush administration) junior).

Winner of the "Keeper of the Flame" award from the US Center for Security Policy (1998).

Anthony Cyril Sutton (born Antony Cyril Sutton; February 14, 1925, London - June 17, 2002, USA) is an American economist of British origin.

Sovietology is an interdisciplinary area of ​​comprehensive social science research that studies the Soviet Union and its system, society, economy and culture. It arose in the USA and Western Europe during the Cold War (confrontation with the USSR).

The list of recipients of the US National Medal of Science includes famous scientists who received it for their outstanding achievements. The US National Medal of Science has been awarded by the President of the United States since 1962. As of May 19, 2016, 506 people were awarded. The medal was not awarded in some years: 1971, 1972, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1984 and 1985. The first medal was awarded on February 18, 1963 by US President John F. Kennedy to Theodore von Kármán.

The medal is awarded in six categories in the following scientific disciplines:

Psychology and social sciences

Biological Sciences

Chemistry

Engineering Sciences

Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Sciences

Physical Sciences

In 1919, Herbert Hoover created a library at Stanford University, where he taught, on the causes and consequences of World War I and the Russian Revolution. A few years later he is elected president of the United States, and power passes to the Republicans. Since taking over as leader of the country in 1928, the ideologue Hoover has become famous for his loud statements about the economic miracle and the future victory over poverty. A few months later, the Great Depression hits, an economic downturn that puts an end to a certain form of capitalism. Since its creation, the Hoover Library has attracted attention due to the personality of its creator. This academic entity is in the service of the Republican Party. She specializes in the conflicts that brought the United States onto the European stage, the Bolshevik Revolution, and fundamentally extols speculative capitalism despite its proven failures.

Hoover invested $50,000 in his library, and the Rockefeller Foundation became its sponsor. Over two decades, more than one and a half million documents were collected throughout Europe, including materials on various periods of history: the end of tsarism, the first Soviet governments, peace conferences, etc. A separate tower was built to store these treasures. The library was dedicated in 1941 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Stanford University. In 1946, the library began recruiting scientists to study the materials. After moving to New York, Hoover donated his house at Stanford to the university president. He found funds for both the library and the university, but on the condition that the latter would become a mouthpiece for the Republican Party. In 1957, the library was transformed into a research center and renamed the Institute of Problems of War, Revolutions and Peace. Hoover's Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace.

In 1960, 86-year-old Herbert Hoover lured one of the directors of the American Enterprise Institute, W. Glenn Campbell, to the position of director of the Hoover Institute. He asked Campbell to publish materials that would " clearly demonstrated the demonic nature of Karl Marx's doctrines, whether communism, socialism, economic materialism or atheism, in order to protect the American way of life from these ideologies and highlight the reliability of the American system". For 34 years, the Campbell-led institute, which included dozens of researchers, was a reference point for Republicans. The Institute has conducted numerous studies on the benefits of free enterprise, the disadvantages of communism, and the needs of national security.

During Richard Nixon's and Gerald Ford's presidency, Cambell served on the Commission on White House Fellows, which recruits and trains young members of the President's staff for a year. He also served on the National Science Board, an advisory body to Congress. Under President Ronald Reagan, also a Republican, Campbell headed the Intelligence Oversight Board. It was during this time that the Hoover Institution established ties with the CIA.

The Hoover Library collected the archives of Friedrich von Hayek and the Mont Pelerin Society. It provided housing and large rewards to pseudo-liberal economists. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Hoover sent his men to search for Soviet archives. Over the course of several months, they obtained tens of thousands of documents relating to the functioning of the state and the Party. This continued until the Russian authorities learned about the robbery and stopped it.

In 1996, after Republican Bob Dole lost to Bill Clinton, Hoover Institution researcher Martin Anderson, a former special adviser to Nixon and economic adviser to Reagan, founded the Congressional Policy Advisory Committee. Advisory Board). Every month, under the leadership of Representative Chris Cox of California and Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, seminars were organized for Republican legislators, taught by top teachers.

Following the same principle, in 1998, a group of Hoover Institution researchers met at the Stanford residence of former US Secretary of State George P. Schultz to prepare candidate George W. Bush. on issues of international relations. The “classes” took place at a residence in Austin (Texas).

The group included Martin Anderson, John Taylor, Abraham Sofaer, John Cogan, and the Dean of Stanford University, Condoleezza Rice. They were soon joined by those politicians who had attended the Congressional seminars, in particular: Richard Armitage, James Baker, Robert Blackwill, Dick Cheney, Stephen Hadley, Richard Pearl (Richard Perle), Donald Rumsfeld (Donald Rumsfeld), Brent Scowcroft (Paul Wolfowitz), (Dov Zakheim), (Robert Zoellick) and even Colin Powell. This group is known as the "Volcanoes" (by analogy with the Greek god who forges the weapons of Olympus in the depths of volcanoes). It was she who was involved in developing the foreign policy strategy introduced during the first presidential term of Bush Jr. As a token of gratitude, in 2001, Bush appointed Condoleezza Rice as national security adviser, and appointed seven more Hoover Institution employees to the Pentagon among the thirty members of the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee.
Richard V. Allen (former National Security Advisor)
Martin Anderson
Gary Becker (Nobel Prize in Economics, 1992)
Newt Gingrich (former Speaker of the House of Representatives)
Henry S. Rowen (former Deputy Secretary of Defense)
Kiron S. Skinner (Professor of Political Science)
Pete Wilson (former governor and then senator of California).

The annual budget of the Hoover Institution reaches $25 million, funds are provided by large enterprises close to the Republican Party (Exxon-Mobil, General Motors, Ford, Boeing, Chrysler, etc.). In addition to books, the institute publishes a political magazine, published every two months. Policy Review and a trimonthly magazine dedicated to the last major communist state China Leadership Monitor .

Unlike classic “think-tanks,” the Hoover Institution is not a political organization, but a university one. In violation of academic ethics, this privilege makes it possible to give a scientific appearance to activities that are in fact political. For 24 years, Stanford students and professors have regularly petitioned for the university to separate and end its ties to the Hoover Institution. But they remain unanswered.