Peter 1 specific results of their activities. Results of the transformative activities of Peter I
3
Peter's active transformative activity I began immediately after returning from abroad.
What goals were pursued by Peter's reforms? I?
Radical Peter's transformations, according to A.B. Kamensky, were “a response to the comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism, which befell the Russian state in the second half XVII V.". The reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, eliminate its lag behind Western Europe, preserve and strengthen independence, and put an end to the “old Moscow traditional way of life.”
Reforms covered many areas of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, needs Northern wars, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721). In particular, the war forced the urgent creation of a new combat-ready army and navy. Therefore, the main reform was the military one.
Before Peter I The basis of the Russian army was the noble militia. Service people appeared at the call of the tsar “on horseback, in crowds and in arms.” Such an army was poorly trained and poorly organized. Attempts to create a regular army (Ivan's Streltsy regiments IV , regiments of the “foreign system” of Alexei Mikhailovich) were not particularly successful due to the lack of money in the treasury for their maintenance. In 1705 Peter I entered recruiting sets from tax-paying classes (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier's service was for life (in 1793 Catherine II limited it to 25 years). Until 1725 83 recruitments were carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand people.
Recruit sets solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into one service estate(initially it was called the nobility, but later the name was established nobility). Each representative of the service class was obliged to serve starting from the age of 15 (the only privilege was that the nobles served in the Guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky). Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. Nobles no longer received estates for their service. Now they were paid a cash salary. Refusal to serve led to confiscation of the estate. In 1714 was published " Decree O sole inheritance", according to which the estate was inherited only by one of the sons, and the rest had to earn their livelihood. To train officers, schools were opened - navigation, artillery, and engineering.
In 1722 By decree of the king, the so-called " Report card O ranks" 14 military and equivalent civilian ranks were introduced. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his diligence and intelligence, could move up the career ladder right up to the very top. The path was not closed to representatives of the tax-paying classes. A soldier could receive an officer's rank for bravery and automatically acquired personal nobility. Having reached the eighth rank, he became a hereditary nobleman - the nobility began to be given to his children. Now the position in society was determined not only by his origin, but also place V official hierarchy. The main principle was “He is not a nobleman who does not serve.”
Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy emerged with the tsar at its head. All classes were in public service and bore responsibilities for the benefit of the state.
As a result of Peter's reforms I were created regular army, numbering 212 thousand people and powerful fleet(48 battleships and 800 galleys with 24 thousand sailors).
The maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of state income. We had to find more and more new sources of revenue for the treasury. The most important means of replenishing the treasury was taxes. Under Peter I indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dress, on beards, etc.). In order to increase tax collection, tax reform was carried out. Before Peter I the unit of taxation was the peasant yard(farm). In order to pay less taxes, peasants gathered several families into one yard - grandfathers, fathers, brothers, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren lived together. Peter replaced the household tax capitation. The unit of taxation was soul male gender, from infants to the elderly.
In 1710 it was held census all tax-paying people, both government and landowners. All of them were taxed. Was introduced passport system- No one could leave their place of residence without a passport. Thus the final enslavement Total population, and not just landowner peasants. There was nothing similar to the passport system in European countries*. With the introduction of the poll tax, per capita taxes increased on average threefold.
Constant wars (out of 36 years of his reign, Peter I fought for 28 years), radical transformations sharply increased the burden on central and local authorities. The old state machine was unable to cope with the new tasks and began to malfunction.
Peter I held reorganization of the entire system of power and management. In pre-Petrine Rus', laws were adopted by the Tsar together with the Boyar Duma. After approval by the tsar, the decisions of the Duma took the force of law. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Near Chancellery, which was called from 1708. “Concilia of Ministers”, i.e. with a narrow circle of trusted people. Thereby, legislative branch there was power liquidated. Laws were formalized by decrees of the king.
In 1711 was created Governing Senate. Unlike the Boyar Duma, the Senate did not pass laws. Its functions were purely control. The Senate was tasked with monitoring local government bodies and checking the compliance of the administration's actions with the laws issued by the tsar. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Since 1722 the position was introduced general-prosecutor, who was appointed by the king to monitor the work of the Senate (“the sovereign’s eye”). In addition, the institute fiscals", obliged to secretly check and report on abuses by officials.
In 1718-1720 Was held collegiate reform, which replaced the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - collegiums. The boards were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the entire country. The internal structure of the collegium was based on collegial, clear regulation of the duties of officials and the stability of full-time employees. A total of 11 collegiums were created (instead of 50 orders): Military, Admiralty, Chamber Collegium, Revision Collegium, Justice Collegium, Kammertz Collegium, State Office Collegium, Berg, Manufacture Collegium, and Foreign Affairs Collegium. The most important “state” boards were those in charge of foreign and military affairs. Another group of boards dealt with finance; income of the Chambers - Collegium; expenses – States – office – board; control over the collection and expenditure of funds - Audit Board. Trade and industry were led, respectively, by the Commerce Collegium and the Berg - Manufacture Collegium, divided into two departments in 1722. In 1721 The Patrimonial Collegium was created, which dealt with noble land ownership and was located in Moscow. Another class board was created in 1720, the Chief Magistrate, who ruled the city class - artisans and merchants.
The local government system was reorganized. In 1707 The king issued a decree according to which the whole country was divided into provinces. Initially there were six of them - Moscow, Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelogorodskaya. Then there were ten of them - the Ingermanland (St. Petersburg) was formed*and Siberian, and Kazan - divided into Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan. The provinces were headed by those appointed by the tsar governors. Governors had broad powers, exercised administrative and judicial powers, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into counties, counties into districts, which were abolished later.
Reforms of central and local government were complemented by church reform. Before Peter I headed the Russian Orthodox Church patriarch, elected by the highest clergy. Although the Orthodox Church recognized the primacy of the state over the church, nevertheless, the power of the patriarch was still quite great. The patriarch, like the tsar, bore the title “great sovereign” and enjoyed great independence. Peter's reforms I , his desire to borrow Western customs, clothing, appearance, the dominance of foreigners at the royal court - all this caused discontent in the church. To limit her influence, Peter in 1721. abolished patriarchate. Instead, a board for church affairs was created - His Holiness Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the tsar from among the highest clergy, and the head of the Synod was appointed by the sovereign chief-prosecutor. Secret control over the activities of the Synod was carried out by the chief fiscal for spiritual affairs. Thus, the church was finally subordinated to the state, became part of the state apparatus, to the point that priests were required to immediately report all anti-government plans that became known during confession. This role of the church remained until 1917.
Thus, Peter I created a harmonious, centralized system of power and management: autocrat - Senate - collegiums - provinces - provinces - counties. It was complemented by the same harmonious system of control (Preobrazhensky order, fiscal authority), punitive authorities (Secret Chancellery, police) 22 September 1721 (on the day of the solemn celebration of the Peace of Nystad, which marked the end of the long-term and difficult Northern War for Russia), the Senate awarded Peter I titles " Emperor», « Father Fatherland" And " Great" This act completed the process of transforming the estate-representative monarchy into an absolute one. Unlimited power of Peter I received legal recognition, and Russia turned into empire.
Economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the country's military power. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods should always exceed their import. This policy ensured a positive trade balance, which led to the accumulation of money in the treasury.
To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammertz Collegium. The means of implementing the policy of mercantilism were high duties on imported goods, reaching 60%. Trade in a number of goods that brought the greatest profit (salt, tobacco, flax, leather, caviar, bread, etc.) was introduced state monopoly- Only the state could sell and buy them.
Merchants were forced to unite into trade companies, indicated which ports to transport goods to, at what prices to sell them, and forcibly relocated them from one city to another. This policy solved the problems of protectionism - protecting domestic producers from competition from foreign goods. At the initial stages of modernization, the policy of protectionism was completely justified. However, its long-term preservation could lead to the fact that, in the absence of competition, manufacturers would stop caring about the quality of goods and reducing their cost.
An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. This was due to the fact that without a powerful industrial base it was impossible to supply the army and navy with everything necessary. Under Peter I industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By 1712 the army and navy were fully provided with weapons of their own production. By the end of Peter's reign I in Russia there were over 200 manufactories, ten times more than before him.
Iron smelting increased from 150 thousand poods in 1700. up to 800 thousand poods in 1725 Russian cast iron from Ural factories was even exported to England.
A typical feature of the economy of Peter the Great's time was gain roles states in industry management. Manufacturing production could not develop naturally, since economic conditions were not ripe for this - the process of primitive accumulation was at the very beginning. Therefore, most manufactories were built with state money and belonged to the state. Almost all manufactories worked under government orders. Often the state itself built new factories and then transferred them to private hands. But if the factory owner did not cope with the business - he produced expensive and low-quality products - the plant could be taken away and transferred to another owner. Such enterprises were called sessional (ownership). It is no coincidence that Russian breeders were called “factory owners.” Russian factory owners of Peter the Great's time were not capitalist entrepreneurs in the Western sense. They were rather landowners, only the role of the estate was played by the factory.
This similarity especially clearly demonstrated how the issue of working strength. As a result of the tax reform, serfdom became universal, the entire tax-paying population was attached to the land, and there were no free workers. Therefore, Russian industry was based on use serf labor. Entire villages of state peasants were assigned to factories. They had to work 2-3 months a year at the factory (mining ore, burning coal, etc.). Such peasants were called attributed. In 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing factory owners to buy peasants as property to work at the factory. These workers were called sessional. Consequently, manufactories under Peter I , well technically equipped, were not capitalist enterprises, but feudal-serf enterprises.
Peter's transformations were especially impressive I in area education, science and technology, culture And everyday life.
The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, which the country urgently needed. The introduction of secular education in Russia occurred almost 600 years after Western Europe. In 1699 The Pushkar School was founded in Moscow, and in 1701. In the building of the Sukharev Tower, a “school of mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened, which became the predecessor of the one created in 1715. at the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy. In Peter's time, a Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and craft schools. In the province, primary education was carried out in 42 numbered schools, where local officials were trained, and garrison schools, where soldiers' children were taught. In 1703-1715 In Moscow, there was a special secondary school - the “gymnasium” of Pastor E. Gluck, which taught mainly foreign languages. In 1724 A mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals.
Secular education required new textbooks. In 1703 "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers..." was published by L.F. Magnitsky, which entered Arabic numbers instead of alphabetic ones. Magnitsky and the English mathematician A. Farvarson released “Tables of logarithms and sines.” “A Primer”, “Slavic Grammar” and other books appeared. F.P. made a great contribution to the creation of new textbooks and teaching aids. Polikarpov, G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, F. Prokopovich.
The development of science and technology in Peter's time was primarily based on the practical needs of the state. Great successes have been achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of subsoil and the search for minerals, and in invention. M. Serdyukov was known for his achievements in the construction of hydraulic structures; Ya. Batishchev invented a machine for water turning gun barrels; E. Nikonov presented a project to create “hidden ships” (submarines); A famous mechanic of Peter the Great's time was A. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, and the creator of an optical sight.
On Peter's initiative I The collection of scientific collections began. In 1718 a decree was issued ordering the population to present “both human and bestial, animal and bird monsters,” as well as “old inscriptions on stones, iron or copper, or some old unusual gun, dishes, etc., everything that is very old and unusual.” In 1719 The Kunstkamera, a collection of “rarities”, was opened for public viewing, which served as the basis for the collection of future museums: the Hermitage, Artillery, Naval, etc. The result of the achievements of Peter the Great’s time in the field of education and science was the creation (by decree of January 28, 1724) In Petersburg Academy sciences. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725
During the reign of Peter I Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before)*. Printing houses and a newspaper appeared (since December 1702, the first periodical in Russia began to be published - the Vedomosti newspaper, with a circulation of 100 to 2500 copies). Libraries, a theater in Moscow and much more were established.
A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I - its state character. Peter assessed culture, art, education, and science from the standpoint of benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary. The work of a writer, actor, artist, teacher, scientist was turned into a type of public service, secured by a salary. Culture provided certain social functions.
The second characteristic feature of Russian culture that developed during the time of Peter I became civilizational split Russian society. Western customs, clothing, lifestyle, even language were actively borrowed. But all this was the lot of the service class - the nobility. The lower classes (peasantry, merchants) preserved traditional culture. The upper and lower classes differed even in appearance. Essentially, in Russian culture, two cultures existed independently of each other: Westernistic - noble, and traditional, pochvennicheskaya - peasant, opposing each other.
* In Russia, passports were abolished in 1917. and reintroduced in 1932.
* In 1713, Peter I moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
* Peter I, in order not to get into unnecessary strife with the Orthodox Church, introduced the Julian calendar, although Europe lived according to the Gregorian calendar. Hence the difference of 13 days, which lasted until 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar.
Since 1892 By 1898 Historians call it "Peter's University". During this period of time, his sister Sophia was regent for two heirs, Ivan and Peter. During this period, he lives with his mother in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, and on the other side is the German settlement of Kukuy, where immigrants from Western Europe lived, who were invited under Ivan III. Peter came to them on boats, there he absorbed the foundations of Western Europe, their culture. And comparing our Russian identity, he comes to the conclusion that Rus' needs to be turned towards Western Europe. After the “great embassy” (trip to Western Europe). 1697 He begins to carry out reforms to change the life of the Russian nobility (drinking coffee, shaving beards, introduced dresses according to the Hungarian model).
Goal: To turn the development of Russia along the Western path. But not in order to stand next to them, but in order to make Russia a large prosperous power.
Results: Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, and became a maritime power with a strong fleet, a strong army, a developed economy of the country, and turned from a transporting country into an exporting one. Raising the international prestige of Russia.
The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine II.
1762-1796 The reign of Catherine II is called the “Golden Age of the Nobility” and the era of enlightenment of absolutism. Spread of culture, education in Russia.
Enlightened absolutism is a union of philosophers and monarchs. At this time, the theory according to which the feudal foundations of society could be overcome not by revolutionary, but evolutionary, by the monarchs themselves and their nobles with the help of wise advisers, philosophers and other enlightened people, became widespread. The kings, who should be enlightened people, students of the ideologists of the enlightenment, were: Frederick II (King of Prussia) and Catherine II. During this period there was the “Golden Age of the Nobility”, according to the charter of the nobility of 1762. The nobles were allowed not to serve, and this gave them the opportunity to engage in education and send their children to study abroad. At this stage the nobility was a highly enlightened elite society.
Measures to liberalize the peasant question and attempts at political modernization in the first half of the 19th century. Alexander I, Nicholas I.
Liberalization of the peasant question - reform of serfdom. Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, his reign can be divided into two parts:
1. The Alexandrov days are a wonderful start;
2. Reign;
In 1802, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued, which allowed the release of their peasants with land. In 1808-1809, it was forbidden to sell peasants, print newspapers about sales, and send them into exile at the will of the landowner. But the results were insignificant.
Nicholas I carried out many reforms. Reform “On State Peasants” (1837-1842). This category was given partial self-government, schools and hospitals were opened, peasants were educated in agricultural technology, and provided with agricultural products. Under Nicholas I, every community grew potatoes. 1842 Decree on “obligated peasants”. Landowners could give peasants personal freedom, and in order to use the land, peasants had to perform certain duties.
Political modernization of Alexander I:
1. In the first half of his reign, his secretary Speransky developed a draft constitution. On the basis of which the following is created: the State Duma, the local Duma, as an elected representative body of government. 1810 A state body was approved, which consisted of: state dignitaries who were supposed to take legislative initiatives before the king. This is the only body that existed until the 1917 revolution.
Nicholas I (1825-1855). He considered it his task to strengthen the power of the nobles, relying on the army and bureaucracy (officials), to protect and monitor unreliable people, the Second Department of His Own Imperial Majesty was created. For the work of this office, a corps of Jardamvas was created, which was engaged in political investigation.
2.1833 A “code of laws of the Russian Empire” was issued.
3. Financial reform.
4. Industrial revolution (urban population growth), railway construction.
5. Real education (institutes) is being introduced.
Thanks to the energetic activity of Peter I, enormous changes occurred in the economy, the level and forms of development of the productive forces, in the political system of Russia, in the structure and functions of government bodies, in the organization of the army, in the class and estate structure of the population, in the life and culture of peoples. Medieval Muscovite Rus' turned into the Russian Empire. Russia's place and role in international affairs has changed radically.
The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter I's activities in implementing reforms. On the one hand, these reforms had enormous historical meaning, since they met the national interests and needs of the country, contributed to its progressive development, and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, the reforms were carried out using the same serfdom methods and thereby contributed to the strengthening of the rule of the serf owners.
From the very beginning, the progressive transformations of Peter the Great's time contained conservative features, which became more and more prominent as the country developed and could not ensure the complete elimination of its backwardness. Objectively, these reforms were bourgeois in nature, but subjectively, their implementation led to the strengthening of serfdom and the strengthening of feudalism. They could not be different - the capitalist structure in Russia at that time was still very weak.
It is also worth noting the cultural changes in Russian society that occurred during Peter’s time: the emergence of first-level schools, specialized schools, and the Russian Academy of Sciences. A network of printing houses has emerged in the country to print domestic and translated publications. The country's first newspaper began to be published, and the first museum appeared. Significant changes have occurred in everyday life.
13) Military reform of Peter I
The essence of the military reform was the elimination of noble militias and the organization of a permanent combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and regulations.
In the spring of 1690, the famous “amusing regiments” - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. , the “capital city of Preshburg” is being built on the Yauza.
The Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future standing (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had become one of the strongest naval powers in the world, having 48 ships of the line and 788 galleys and other ships.
Before Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations. The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruitment. Recruitment was extended to the population. In 1699 the first recruitment was carried out, and from 1705 recruitment became annual. From 20 households they took one single person between the ages of 15 and 20. The recruit's service life was practically unlimited.
The officer corps of the Russian army was replenished by nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720, the Naval Charter, and large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks),
The main results of Peter the Great's military reforms are as follows:
- the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them;
- the emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);
- creation of a powerful navy;
- a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.
14) The empire grew during the era of palace coups (1725-1762)
Peter I died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle between various noble groups for power began. In 1725, A.D. Menshikov, a representative of the new family nobility, elevated the widow of Peter I, Catherine I, to the throne. To strengthen her power, in 1726 the Empress established the Supreme Privy Council. From 1726 to 1730 The Council, limiting the power of the Senate, actually decided all state affairs. After the death of Catherine I, 12-year-old Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, became the crown emperor. In 1727, the Dolgorukov princes obtained the exile of Menshikov from the new emperor. Representatives were introduced into the Supreme Privy Council Dolgoruky and Golitsyn. Peter II fell under the influence of the old boyar aristocracy, and actually gave power to the Supreme Privy Council. In 1730, Peter II died of smallpox, and the niece of Peter I, the wife of the Duke of Courland, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to reign. Before accepting the crown, she agreed to the terms of limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council, but, having become empress, she immediately dissolved the council and repressed its members. From 1730 to 1740 the country was ruled by the Empress's favorite E.I. Biron and his German entourage. This was the decade of foreign dominance, a time of rampant cruelty of the authorities and embezzlement. In 1740, Anna Ioannovna declared her sister’s three-month-old grandson heir to the throne, and appointed Biron as regent.
In November 1740, as a result of a palace coup, the regency was transferred to Anna Leopoldovna. In November 1741, after another coup caused by dissatisfaction with the continuation of German dominance, Elizaveta Petrovna ascended the throne (1741-1761), supported by the guards, with help from France and Sweden, she arrested and imprisoned the infant emperor, exiled I. Minikh, A. I. Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power to Siberia. During her reign, there was a return to Peter's orders and their strengthening. Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. Landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs duties were abolished. The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to enter into an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 began. A 100,000-strong Russian army was sent to the territory of Austria against Prussia. In the summer of 1757, Russian troops entered Prussia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Groß-Jägersdorf. In 1758, Koenigsberg was taken. In the same year, a major battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick II near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykov, with the support of the allied Austrian troops, as a result of a bloody battle, practically destroyed the Prussian army. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. She was saved from this by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25. 1761
After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter III (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who stopped the war and returned all previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick II. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter III did not understand the beliefs and customs of the Orthodox Church and neglected them. Pro-Prussian policies caused dissatisfaction with his rule and led to the growing popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended services. In Orthodoxy she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.
On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guards of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seized power. Peter III signs the act of abdication and dies at the hands of security officers.
Lesson objectives: 1.Repeat and summarize the material studied on the topic “The Age of Peter I.” Assess the activities of Peter I. 2. Show the skills and abilities of using ICT in preparation for the lesson, as well as the skills of conducting active search and research activities, working with sources and literature. 3. Show your creativity and interest in history; development of speech culture in public speaking, development of skills to defend one’s beliefs, respect the opinions of others, answer questions, lead a discussion.
Problematic questions: What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in Russian history was controversial? What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in Russian history was controversial? Why didn’t the name of Peter I win the “Name of Russia” competition? Why didn’t the name of Peter I win the “Name of Russia” competition?
Lesson content Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Defense of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Defense of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Solving problematic issues Solving problematic issues
For almost three hundred years now, the figure of Peter I and his transformations have been causing controversy among scientists. From the very beginning, two opposing approaches emerged in the dispute: apologetic (admiration) and critical, which at times converged, but then diverged again. Apparently, a compromise assessment of the activities of Peter I is more realistic.
Childhood. Youth. The beginning of the reign On April 27, 1682, ten-year-old Tsarevich Peter was proclaimed tsar, but soon he was approved by the 3rd Yema Council as the “second tsar”, and John as the “first”. Their elder sister, Princess Sophia, became their ruler. Until 1689, Peter and his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, coming to Moscow only for official ceremonies. In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Until 1694, his mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on behalf of Peter I. In 1696, after the death of John V, Peter became sole tsar.
Personality of Peter I The characteristic features of Peter were intelligence, will, energy, open-mindedness, determination, curiosity, and incredible performance. Peter, without receiving a systematic education in his youth, studied all his life. At the same time, Peter was quick-tempered and cruel, and took personal part in torture and executions. The king did not take into account the interests and life of an individual.
The Great Embassy In 1697, the tsar equipped the “Great Embassy” to Europe and himself joined it under the name of Peter Mikhailov. In Prussia, the tsar studied artillery and received a certificate as a firearms master. Peter went to England and Holland to study shipbuilding. During his stay in Europe, Peter visited factories, libraries, and listened to lectures at universities. In 1698, the Tsar hastily returned to Russia.
First transformations In 1699, a calendar reform was carried out. A printing house was created in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian. The first Russian Order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded. The king ordered young men from noble families to be sent to study abroad. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow.
Transformations in the economy Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome Russia's technical backwardness and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs were the most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, and new industries emerged.
Lessons from the Northern War The war began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in 1700. However, this lesson was useful for Peter: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily the backwardness of the Russian army. The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Soon Peter I managed to win the first victories over the enemy, capture and devastate a significant part of the Baltic states. In 1703, at the mouth of the Neva, Peter founded St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia.
Governance reform In 1711, while setting off on the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Senate. Senate. In 1714, the Decree on Single Inheritance was issued. In 1714, the Decree on Single Inheritance was issued. In 1717, the creation of central collegiums began. In 1717, the creation of collegiums of central sectoral management bodies, sectoral management bodies began. In 1718, the poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1718, a poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. In 1720, the General Regulations were published. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. institutions. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles “Great” and “The Father honored Peter with the titles “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland.” fatherland." In 1722 Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the In 1722 Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the order of organization of military and civil service. the procedure for organizing military and civil service.
Transformations in the field of culture The time of Peter I is a time of active penetration of secular European culture into Russian life. Secular educational institutions began to appear, and the first Russian newspaper was founded. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment.
Personal life of the Tsar In January 1689, at the insistence of his mother, Peter I married Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. After 10 years, he imprisoned her in a monastery. Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (Catherine I). She bore him several children, of whom only daughters Anna and Elizabeth survived. Peter, apparently, was very attached to his second wife and in 1724 crowned her with the imperial crown, intending to bequeath the throne to her. The tsar’s relationship with his son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, did not work out, who died under unclear circumstances in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the years of hard work and bad habits that undermined the emperor’s health. On January 28, 1725, as a result of illness, Peter I died without leaving a will. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.
Results of Peter's reforms 1) The most important result of Peter's reforms was to overcome the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. 2) Russia became a full participant in international relations, pursuing an active foreign policy. 3) Russia’s authority in the world has grown significantly, and Peter himself has become for many a model of a reformer ruler. 4) At the same time, the main tool for carrying out reforms was violence. 5) Petrine reforms did not rid the country of the previously established system of social relations embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, preserved and strengthened its institutions.
2. The result of the reform activities of Peter I is considered to be 1) overcoming the economic backwardness of Russia from Western countries 2) turning Russia into a strong European power 3) rapid growth of the Russian economy 4) the beginning of democratization of political life Correct answer: 2
5. Among the phenomena that prompted Peter I to carry out reforms in Russia, there was no such thing as 1) the economic lag of Russia from the advanced countries of the West 2) the backwardness in the organization and armament of the Russian army 3) the isolation of Russian cultural life from European 4) the promise of European powers to support reforms in Russia with their investments Correct answer: 4
6. The reasons for the uprising under the leadership of K. Bulavin cannot be attributed to 1) attempts by the authorities to limit Cossack self-government 2) mass mobilization of peasants for the construction of a fleet 3) increased repression against runaway peasants 4) dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners in the Russian service Correct answer: 4
7. The increase in agricultural productivity under Peter I was associated primarily with 1) the annexation of more fertile lands 2) increased state coercion of peasants 3) the replacement of the sickle with a Lithuanian scythe during harvesting 4) the provision of assistance to peasants by the state Correct answer: 2
8. As a result of the state and administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia 1) the absolute power of the monarch was strengthened 2) the foundations of a constitutional monarchy were laid 3) the emperor began to rule together with the Supreme Privy Council 4) the functions of the Zemsky Councils expanded Correct answer: 1
1721 was the year when Russia, having concluded the Peace of Nystadt with Sweden to its full benefit, acquired the official name of the Russian Empire. Its founder, Peter, was given the title “Father of the Fatherland, Emperor of All Russia, Peter the Great” by the Senate.
The powerful mind and iron hand of Peter I touched everything that Russia lived at that time and subjected its life to profound transformations. They covered industry, agriculture, trade, government, the status of classes and social groups, etc. The country has made a leap from patriarchal backwardness to comprehensive development. Sprouts of secular spiritual life appeared: the first newspaper, the first vocational schools, the first printing houses, the first museum, the first public library, the first public theaters.
This was truly a great deed of Peter. But it began with the transformation of state defense and its main engine was military campaigns.
The impetus for everything was given by the two Azov campaigns of Peter I against Turkey, when the vital need to organize the Russian army as a regular army and the creation of naval forces was realized. And this required the rapid development of industry, in particular metallurgy, the rise of agriculture and, in general, the reorganization of the entire state. Meanwhile, the Azov campaigns, which culminated in the capture of Azov and, to some extent, strengthening the security of Russia's southern borders, did not bring the main result - access to the Black Sea.
The international situation, in particular, the collapse of the anti-Turkish Holy League, turned Peter I’s “thoughts and eyes” away from the Black Sea region for a long time. But Russia had the opportunity (the struggle of the major European powers for the “Spanish inheritance” had begun) to go to war with Sweden, in a coalition with Saxony and Denmark, to regain access to the Baltic Sea. This long, bloody war, known as the Northern War (1700-1721), ended with the crushing defeat of the first-rate Swedish army and the Russian conquest of the Baltic coast from Vyborg and St. Petersburg to Riga, which allowed it to enter the rank of great powers.
The Northern War was the crucible in which the regular Russian army and naval forces were tempered and strengthened, and the strategy and tactics of Peter I and his commanders were formed.
In contrast to the cordon strategy, focused on the scattering of troops, and, in fact, on defensive actions, the strategy of Peter 1 was decisive in nature: he sought to concentrate troops in a decisive direction and not so much to seize the territory, but to destroy the enemy’s manpower and artillery . His strategy did not shy away from defense, as he showed in the first years of the Northern War, but he reduced the very essence of defense not to aimless maneuvering, as the cordon strategy prescribed, but to exhausting the enemy and gaining time in order to give a general battle and defeat his. True, he considered this battle “an extremely dangerous matter” and avoided it in an unfavorable situation.
Peter I and his commanders remained adherents of linear tactics, but introduced innovations into it that left only an external resemblance to a linear battle formation in the proper sense of the concept. The linear structure adopted in the Russian army assumed, for example, a reserve and so-called private lines (private support lines). This made it deeper and more stable. The art of military engineering has received great development.
Russian troops carried out the siege of fortresses, combining actual engineering methods of action (undermining, aprosh, etc.) with massive artillery fire to proceed to the assault. The fortification turned out to be strong, as evidenced by the heroic defense of Poltava.
The way Peter I demonstrated the art of fighting on the battlefield was the school in which major commanders such as A.D. Menshikov, B.P. Sheremetev, M.M. Golitsyn, F.M. Apraksin grew up.
Russia paid a heavy price for its success in the wars it had to fight. Despite the acquisition of the “populous” Baltic provinces, the population in the country decreased under Peter compared to the number that was under Tsar Alexei, believed to be three million. After Peter, the decline increased even more. But these heavy sacrifices were not made in vain, but in the name of the real needs of the great state - economic development and ensuring the military security of Russia.
After the death of Peter the Great, the development of his undertakings in military affairs made its way through the “pro-Prussian” influence of Peter II and Peter III and their entourage and was expressed in the thoughts and military achievements of such commanders - geniuses of Russian military art - as P.A. Rumyantsev, A. .V.Suvorov and their followers. They increased the military glory of Russia (M.I. Kutuzov, P.I. Bagration) and fully satisfied its national interests.
There are countless innovations they introduced into Russian military art of the 18th century. The strategy of P.A. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov had a solid foundation: careful consideration of the operational-strategic situation. Its cornerstone was the need to defeat the enemy piecemeal, imposing on him the place and time of a general battle. Both P.A. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov, and after them M.I. Kutuzov and P.I. Bagration, invariably sought to deliver the main blow with concentrated forces on a narrow front. In this case, they usually resorted to demonstration actions in secondary directions, thereby misleading the enemy. Both of them were supporters of deep formation of troops, frontal attacks and especially flanking and outflanking maneuvers in their organic combination.
Children of their age, they, of course, have not yet freed themselves from the shroud of the cordon strategy, resorting to excessive maneuvering and not so much to the destruction of manpower as to the capture of fortresses, which sometimes took a long time. They preferred bayonet rather than fire fighting, although they highly valued artillery. But they still stood firmly on their feet, crushing the enemies of Russia.
Despite the difficult situation caused by political contradictions within the coalition, as well as different views on the conduct of war between the allied armies, he firmly and consistently pursued his principles of strategy and tactics during the fighting. He enriched the art of war with examples of skillfully choosing the direction of the main attack, moving to a counter battle from the march, defeating the enemy piecemeal (Trebbia), demonstrative actions in a secondary direction and striking with superior forces against the main group (Novi), organizing the crossing of a water barrier on a wide front (Adda ). Suvorov's success was facilitated by the high morale and fighting qualities of the Russian troops, as well as the support of the Italian people, who, with their help, sought to free themselves from the French occupiers.
