Discovery of Antarctica by Bellingshausen and Lazarev. Discovery of Antarctica Return to Antarctica

hardened earth

How the Russians discovered Antarctica

JAMES COOK AND THE TURTLE

For most of intelligent history, people did not even suspect the existence of a sixth continent. Where he eventually ended up, there should have been three elephants (according to another version, three whales) and a rather large turtle. In a more progressive version, having reached the edge of the earth, one had to fall down, and no one knew what was next. Time passed, man grew up, came up with new means of transportation, with the help of which he gradually learned about the planet he had inherited, moving further and further south from his small historical ancestral home.

I have circumnavigated the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere at high latitudes and have done so in such a way as to have irrefutably rejected the possibility of the existence of a continent... The further search for the Southern Continent has been put to an end... The risk involved in sailing in these unexplored and ice-covered seas is so great that I can safely say : No man will ever dare to penetrate further south than I did. The lands that may be in the south will never be explored.

James Cook

The ancient Greeks already suspected that somewhere far to the south near the pole there should be significant deposits of land. According to their understanding, the large continent was supposed to balance Eurasia from below. Hence the name - Antarctica, that is, “opposite the Arctic”. However, for a long time no one was able to discover the mysterious southern continent. Moreover, James Cook himself, having spent considerable time in the southern seas, decided that Antarctica did not exist: James Cook was a very self-confident person, for which, as is known, he suffered. But his authority turned out to be so great that for the next half century no one made any new attempts to find the Southern Continent, and cartographers stopped depicting the land at the South Pole, which had always been depicted there before.

RUSSIANS HAVE THEIR OWN WAY

M. P. Lazarev

F. F. Bellingshausen

Oh, the Russian sailors were not such as to believe some Englishman, even Cook. Having carefully studied and considered everything, they came to the conclusion that “the heavy ice surrounding the South Pole comes from the great mother earth.” To check this, it was decided to send a Russian scientific expedition to the south polar waters, the project of which was prepared by I.F. Krusenstern, O.E. Kotzebue and G.A. Sarychev. Fadey Bellingshausen, an experienced sailor who had gone on long voyages more than once, was appointed head of the expedition, and the young officer Mikhail Lazarev was his assistant. In June 1818, two sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny”, specially equipped for an ultra-long voyage, were ready for sailing, and crews of volunteers were recruited.

He constantly had to strain the spar while his companion carried very small sails and waited.

Mikhail Lazarev, commander of the sloop "Mirny"

A drawback in the preparation of the expedition - which more than once put it in jeopardy - was that the sloops varied greatly in their characteristics. “Mirny” was in fact not a sloop, but a converted icebreaker transport with a strong hull, well adapted to sailing in polar waters, but at the same time very slow-moving. During the voyage, he constantly lagged behind the Vostok, which was forced to take off part of the sails so as not to fly too far ahead. As the commander of the Mirny, Mikhail Lazarev, wrote, he constantly had to “strain the spar while his companion carried very small sails and waited.” In turn, the fast and maneuverable Vostok did not feel well in a storm and especially when sailing in ice. As a result, captains and crews of ships required considerable effort not to become separated.

Sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny"

WE WILL NOT GIVE OURS UP!

o Did the Russian expedition really discover Antarctica? For more than a hundred years no one doubted this. The primacy of Russian sailors in the discovery of the sixth continent was not disputed anywhere or by anyone. This continued until the 30s of the 20th century. All this time, Antarctica remained aloof from big politics, but then its strategic and economic importance began to grow rapidly. Mineral deposits were discovered on the mainland, and immediately those who wanted to challenge the Russian priority appeared. This is how the legend of the discovery allegedly made by the American captain Nathaniel Palmer appeared (where would we be without the Americans!). On November 15 and 18, 1820, that is, more than eight months after the Russian sailors appeared off the coast of Queen Maud Land, he saw part of the coast of Graham Land from Disception Island.

The route of the sloops "Mirny" and "Vostok"

Why not a pioneer! And it doesn’t matter that back in January 1820 the same Graham Land was noticed by the Englishmen William Smith and Edward Bransfield. However, they also visited here later than our compatriots. It is also worth remembering that the voyage of “Vostok” and “Mirny” was an official research expedition, the task of which was precisely to discover new lands and carefully document all the finds made. The claims of the fur seal hunter (Palmer caught nine thousand cat skins that season) are based only on his personal statements. So there is no point in arguing here! The honor of the discovery of Antarctica rightfully belongs to the heroic Russian sailors, no matter how the insidious world behind the scenes weaves its intrigues.

It is impossible to express the joy of general delight. At this time, the sun flashed from the clouds, and its rays illuminated the high black rocks covered with snow. Having circumnavigated the ice-covered continent, the existence of which no one doubted after the Russian expedition, the Vostok and Mirny approached its shores more than once. One of these shores was called the Land of Alexander I. “I call this discovery a shore because,” Bellingshausen wrote, “the remoteness of the other end to the south disappeared beyond our sight.” This coast is covered with snow, but the screes on the mountains and steep cliffs had no snow.” For 120 years, the Land of Alexander I, discovered by the expedition, was considered part of Antarctica, and only in 1940 it was proven that it was the largest Antarctic island, exceeding 43 thousand square kilometers in size (larger than Switzerland). In total, during the 751 day voyage, the sloops covered 92,256 kilometers, that is, a distance two and a quarter times the length of the equator. 29 islands were discovered, hundreds of kilometers of coastlines were mapped, mountains, bays and straits were marked, forever receiving Russian names. Another achievement of the expedition was that, having traveled a huge distance, being in polar latitudes for many months, making its way through ice and storms, the expedition lost only three people: two sailors fell from the masts during a storm, and one sailor died of a chronic disease.

Only 120 years have passed since people began to explore the continent known as Antarctica (1899), and nearly two centuries have passed since sailors first saw its shores (1820). Long before Antarctica was discovered, most early explorers were convinced that there was a large southern continent. They called it Terra Australis incognita - Unknown Southern Land.

The origins of ideas about Antarctica

The idea of ​​its existence came to the minds of the ancient Greeks, who had a penchant for symmetry and balance. There must be a large continent in the South, they postulated, to balance the large land mass in the Northern Hemisphere. Two thousand years later, extensive experience in geographical exploration gave Europeans sufficient reason to turn their attention to the South to test this hypothesis.

16th century: first erroneous discovery of the Southern Continent

The history of the discovery of Antarctica begins with Magellan. In 1520, after sailing through the strait that now bears his name, the famous navigator suggested that its southern shore (now called the island of Tierra del Fuego) might be the northern edge of the great continent. Half a century later, Francis Drake established that Magellan's supposed "continent" was only a series of islands near the tip of South America. It became clear that if there really was a southern continent, it was located further south.

XVII century: one hundred years of approaching the goal

Subsequently, from time to time, sailors, carried off course by storms, again discovered new lands. They often lay further south than any previously known. Thus, while attempting to navigate around Cape Horn in 1619, the Spaniards Bartolomeo and Gonzalo García de Nodal veered off course, only to discover tiny pieces of land they called the Diego Ramírez Islands. They remained the southernmost of the discovered lands for another 156 years.

The next step on a long journey, the end of which was to be marked by the discovery of Antarctica, was taken in 1622. Then the Dutch navigator Dirk Gerritz reported that in the region of 64° south latitude he allegedly discovered a land with snow-capped mountains, similar to Norway. The accuracy of his calculation is doubtful, but it is possible that he saw the South Shetland Islands.

In 1675, the ship of the British merchant Anthony de La Roche was carried far to the southeast of the Strait of Magellan, where, at latitude 55°, he found refuge in an unnamed bay. During his stay on this landmass (which was almost certainly the island of South Georgia) he also saw what he thought was the coast of the Southern Continent to the southeast. In reality it was most likely the Clerk Rocks Islands, which lie 48 kilometers southeast of South Georgia. Their location corresponds to the shores of Terra Australis incognita, placed on the map of the Dutch East India Company, which at one time studied the reports of de La Roche.

18th century: the British and French get down to business

The first truly scientific search, the purpose of which was the discovery of Antarctica, took place at the very beginning of the 18th century. In September 1699, scientist Edmond Halley sailed from England to establish the true coordinates of ports in South America and Africa, take measurements of the Earth's magnetic field and search for the mysterious Terra Australis incognita. In January 1700, he crossed the border of the Antarctic Convergence Zone and saw icebergs, which he wrote down in the ship's log. However, cold stormy weather and the danger of colliding with an iceberg in the fog forced him to turn north again.

Next, forty years later, was the French navigator Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozières, who saw an unknown land at 54° south latitude. He named it "Cape of Circumcision", suggesting that he had found the edge of the Southern Continent, but it was actually an island (now called Bouvet Island).

The Fatal Misconception of Yves de Kergoulin

The prospect of discovering Antarctica attracted more and more sailors. Yves-Joseph de Kergoulin sailed with two ships in 1771 with specific instructions to search for the southern continent. On February 12, 1772, in the southern Indian Ocean, he saw land shrouded in fog at 49° 40", but was unable to land due to rough seas and bad weather. A firm belief in the existence of the legendary and hospitable southern continent blinded him to believe that that he actually discovered it, although the land he saw was an island. Returning to France, the navigator began to spread fantastic information about the densely populated continent, which he modestly called “New Southern France.” His stories convinced the French government to invest in another expensive expedition. Kergulen returned to the mentioned object with three ships, but never set foot on the shore of the island that now bears his name. Worse, he was forced to admit the truth and, returning to France, spent the rest of his days in disgrace.

James Cook and the search for Antarctica

The geographical discoveries of Antarctica are to a large extent connected with the name of this famous Englishman. In 1768 he was sent to the South Pacific to search for a new continent. He returned to England three years later with a variety of new information of a geographical, biological and anthropological nature, but found no signs of the southern continent. The sought-after shores were again moved further south from their previously assumed location.

In July 1772, Cook sailed from England, but this time, on instructions from the British Admiralty, the search for the southern continent was the main mission of the expedition. During this unprecedented voyage, which lasted until 1775, he crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time in history, discovered many new islands and went south to 71° south latitude, which no one had previously achieved.

However, fate did not give James Cook the honor of becoming the discoverer of Antarctica. Moreover, as a result of his expedition, he became confident that if there was an unknown land near the pole, then its area was very small and was of no interest.

Who was lucky enough to discover and explore Antarctica?

After the death of James Cook in 1779, European countries stopped searching for the great southern continent of the Earth for forty years. Meanwhile, in the seas between the previously discovered islands, near the still unknown continent, whalers and hunters of sea animals were already in full swing: seals, walruses, fur seals. Economic interest in the circumpolar region grew, and the year of the discovery of Antarctica was steadily approaching. However, only in 1819, Russian Tsar Alexander I ordered an expedition to be sent to the southern circumpolar regions, and thus the search was continued.

The head of the expedition was none other than Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen. He was born in 1779 in the Baltic states. He began his career as a naval cadet at the age of 10 and graduated from the Kronstadt Naval Academy at the age of 18. He was 40 when he was called to lead this exciting journey. His goal was to continue Cook's work during the voyage and move as far south as possible.

The then famous navigator Mikhail Lazarev was appointed deputy head of the expedition. In 1913-1914 He made a trip around the world as a captain on the sloop Suvorov. What else is Mikhail Lazarev known for? The discovery of Antarctica is a striking, but not the only impressive episode from his life dedicated to serving Russia. He was the hero of the Battle of Navarino at sea with the Turkish fleet in 1827, and for many years he commanded the Black Sea Fleet. His students were famous admirals - heroes of the first Sevastopol defense: Nakhimov, Kornilov, Istomin. His ashes deservedly rest with them in the tomb of the Vladimir Cathedral in Sevastopol.

Preparation of the expedition and its composition

Its flagship was the 600-ton corvette Vostok, built by English shipbuilders. The second ship was the 530-ton sloop Mirny, a transport ship built in Russia. Both ships were made of pine. The Mirny was commanded by Lazarev, who was involved in the preparations of the expedition and did a lot to prepare both ships for sailing in the polar seas. Looking ahead, we note that Lazarev’s efforts were not in vain. It was the Mirny that showed excellent performance and endurance in cold waters, while the Vostok was taken out of sailing a month ahead of schedule. In total, Vostok had 117 crew members, and 72 were on board Mirny.

Beginning of the expedition

She started on July 4, 1819. In the third week of July, the ships arrived in Portsmouth, England. During a short stay, Belingshausen went to London to meet with the President of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks. The latter sailed with Cook forty years ago and now supplied the Russian sailors with books and maps left over from the campaigns. On September 5, 1819, Bellingshausen's polar expedition left Portsmouth, and by the end of the year they were near the island of South Georgia. From here they headed southeast to the South Sandwich Islands and conducted a thorough survey of them, discovering three new islands.

Russian discovery of Antarctica

On January 26, 1820, the expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time since Cook in 1773. The next day, her log shows that the sailors sighted the Antarctic continent while 20 miles away. The discovery of Antarctica by Bellingshausen and Lazarev took place. Over the next three weeks, the ships continuously cruised in the coastal ice, trying to approach the mainland, but they were unable to land on it.

Forced voyage across the Pacific Ocean

On February 22, “Vostok” and “Mirny” suffered from the most severe three-day storm during the entire voyage. The only way to save the ships and crews was to return to the north, and on April 11, 1820, the Vostok arrived in Sydney, and the Mirny entered the same harbor eight days later. After a month of rest, Bellingshausen took his ships on a four-month research voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Arriving back in Sydney in September, Bellingshausen was informed by the Russian consul that an English captain named William Smith had discovered a group of islands at the 67th parallel, which he named South Shetland and declared them part of the Antarctic continent. Bellingshausen immediately decided to take a look at them himself, hoping at the same time to find a way to continue further movement to the south.

Return to Antarctica

On the morning of November 11, 1820, the ships left Sydney. On December 24, the ships crossed the Antarctic Circle again after an eleven-month break. They soon encountered storms that pushed them north. The year of the discovery of Antarctica ended hard for Russian sailors. By January 16, 1821, they had crossed the Arctic Circle at least 6 times, each time a storm forced them to retreat north. On January 21, the weather finally calmed down, and at 3:00 am they noticed a dark speck against the background of the ice. All the telescopes on the Vostok were aimed at him, and, as the daylight grew, Bellingshausen became convinced that they had discovered land beyond the Arctic Circle. The next day, the land turned out to be an island, which was named after Peter I. Fog and ice did not allow landing on land, and the expedition continued its journey to the South Shetland Islands. On January 28, they were enjoying fine weather near the 68th parallel when land was once again sighted about 40 miles to the southeast. Too much ice lay between the ships and land, but a number of mountains free of snow were seen. Bellingshausen called this land the Alexander Coast, and it is now known as Alexander Island. Although it is not part of the mainland, it is nevertheless connected to it by a deep and wide strip of ice.

Completion of the expedition

Satisfied, Bellingshausen sailed north and arrived in Rio de Janeiro in March, where the crew remained until May, making major repairs to the ships. On August 4, 1821 they dropped anchor in Kronstadt. The journey lasted two years and 21 days. Only three people were lost. The Russian authorities, however, turned out to be indifferent to such a great event as the discovery of Antarctica by Bellingshausen. Ten years passed before the reports of his expedition were published.

As with any great achievement, Russian sailors found rivals. Many in the West doubted that it was our compatriots who first discovered Antarctica. The discovery of the mainland was once attributed to the Englishman Edward Bransfield and the American Nathaniel Palmer. However, today practically no one questions the primacy of Russian navigators.

Anatoly Glazunov

Supplement to the Textbook on the Meaning of Life

Table of contents

James Cook off the coast of Antarctica. Russian ships off the coast of Antarctica. Discoveries of the Englishman James Ross. Amundsen at the South Pole. Death of Robert Scott. Japanese in Antarctica. Hitler creates New Swabia in Antarctica in 1939. Expedition to Antarctica of the American Admiral Byrd. Stalin's campaign in Antarctica.
Ancient maps of Antarctica. Dinosaurs in Antarctica...

==========

Antarctica is the iciest, coldest place on the globe. Only here the air temperature can reach almost minus 90 degrees Celsius. But there is life here too.

But before we talk about the struggle of living beings in conditions of terrible cold for their right to be on the globe, we must briefly talk a little about the discovery of Antarctica. About how difficult it was to discover the ice continent. Nowadays, a foreign tribe is doing its best to interfere with the upbringing and education of Russian children. They dropped geography and the history of great geographical discoveries from school subjects for Russians. They want to narrow the horizons of Russian people to the limit. They show millions of Russians in TV boxes, often fat... Bori Moiseev and small subhumans jumping, making faces and singing all sorts of rubbish, but they do not show us heroes, the best people on the globe. They don’t even show us the sailor heroes. And what kind of cosmist can be if he does not know the history of geographical discoveries? After the liberation of the Russian people, if the government becomes 85 percent Russian, the study of great geographical discoveries will be necessarily introduced into the school curriculum.

Just two hundred years ago, even the educated part of the European population, even European geographers, knew nothing about this continent. Some unknown southern land was depicted on the famous map of the Greek Eratosthenes as a small tip of Africa. But on the map of the famous Ptolemy, this unknown land was depicted as a huge landmass. Which Greek to believe? In 1154, on behalf of King Roger II of Sicily, a great lover of geography, the famous Arab geographer Al-Idrisi compiled a geographical treatise, where he depicted the Southern Land as the huge eastern tip of Africa in the Indian Ocean. This book did not immediately become known to European geographers, but then became very popular

And yet, for centuries, geographers have been faced with a question: the unknown Southern Land (lat. Terra Australis Incognita) - the land around the South Pole - is there or not? Some maps of this unknown land even showed mountains, forests and rivers. Many people were worried about the question: are there animals there, are there intelligent beings there, are they like us Europeans?

In 1492 the first globe appeared in Europe. In 1492, Columbus reached America across the Atlantic Ocean. Then the ship "Victoria" from Magellan's expedition, having bypassed the Earth, returned in 1522 to the Spanish port. Interest in the topic of how the Earth is arranged among some Europeans began to increase, but the general level of development of even the European part of humanity was such that it was impossible to raise money and send an expedition to the south. Such were the governments and peoples then (the Spaniards, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British). They spent a huge part of their time and energy fighting each other and destroying each other. Many people believed the stories that there was a wonderful paradise or almost paradise in the Southern Land, with fertile lands, forests, rivers, lakes and golden mountains. Others believed the stories that “bald people”, “people with dog heads”, giants, dragons, vampires and other various monsters lived there. There were people who really wanted to know what this Southern land was really like. Christian missionaries thought about how to get there and begin to save the souls of the creatures living there from eternal torment. But most Europeans were interested in whether there were mountains of gold there, which, after destroying the giants, or destroying or deceiving the sucker natives, could be taken to Europe...

In 1487, the Portuguese navigator B. Dias, having rounded the southern tip of Africa, proved that this continent is not connected to the Southern Continent, after which, when depicting the Southern Continent and Africa on maps, geographers began to separate the Southern Continent and Africa from each other by a wide strait. In 1520, another Portuguese, the famous F. Magellan, passed from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean through the strait named after him. He mistook the mountainous land that he saw south of the strait for the shore of the huge Southern Continent. But a few years later, in 1526, the captain of the Spanish expedition F. Oses, and then in 1578 the English navigator F. Drake proved that Tierra del Fuego is not part of the Southern Continent, but is just a group of mountainous islands. At first, navigators also considered the northern coast of the island of New Guinea, which was discovered by the Spaniards in 1544, to be a protrusion of the Southern Continent. But again they were disappointed. In 1606, the Spanish navigator L. Torres proved that New Guinea was just an island in the Pacific Ocean. For a long time, many considered Ceylon to be part of the Southern Land, until it was proven that it was also an island. Australia, which was discovered in the first half of the 17th century by Dutch sailors, was also initially taken as part of the Southern Continent. But in 1642, the Dutch explorer A. Y. Tasman walked around Australia from the south, proving that Australia and the Southland are different continents. But Tasman himself, having discovered New Zealand, hastily declared that he had discovered the Southern Land. But it soon became clear that New Zealand is also an island...

In 1738, the French East India Company sent J. Bouvet de Lozier to find the Southern Land, giving him two ships - "Aigle" ("Eagle") and "Marie" ("Mary"). And then one day this Frenchman, at a latitude of 54 degrees, saw a high coast that was not on the map. He sailed a little along this coast at a latitude of 52 degrees and made a categorical conclusion that he had found the Southern Land. He returned satisfied with himself to France. And many in France rejoiced. But later it was found that this was also just an island, which was named Bouvet Island. There were still nine hundred miles of difficult and dangerous navigation left from this island to the southern mainland.

The Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French and English continued to search for the Southland. But there were few ships. 300 years have already passed since America was discovered by Europeans, Australia had already been discovered, but the southern land was not given. In 1770, the English geographer Alexander Dalrymple wrote in his book that the number of inhabitants of the Southern Continent “is probably more than 50 million, considering its size.” No one conducted population surveys at that time, so it is unknown how many Englishmen believed the author of this book.

James Cook off the coast of Antarctica

Finally, the government of England sent an expedition to the south of the globe in 1768 on the ship Endeavor (Attempt) under the command of James Cook. The son of a Scottish farm laborer, James Cook did not live his life in vain; through hard work he turned himself into a great navigator and became the discoverer of many lands. The official purpose of the expedition was to study the passage of Venus through the disk of the Sun, but secret orders instructed Cook to immediately, after completing astronomical observations, go to southern latitudes in search of the Southern continent. There was then a fierce struggle between the world powers for new colonies. And of course, it was not astronomical observations and the interests of the science of geography that came first for the London government, although this was also important, but the economic and political interests of the British Empire. It was necessary to further understand the geography of the globe in the south, strengthen the captured colonies and find new rich colonies. Cook organized astronomical observations on the island of Taite, then reached New Zealand, inhabited by natives. I was convinced that these were also islands, and not part of the continent.

James Cook discovered the east coast of Australia. Australia was discovered by the Dutch captain Bill Janszoon back in 1606; the Dutch mapped the western and northern coasts of New Holland (as they called this land). But they did not try to develop these lands. In 1770, James Cook, having discovered the east coast of Australia, named these lands New South Wales and declared them a British possession. But he did not find fresh water there and considered this continent useless for development. The name "Australia" comes from the Latin australis, which literally translates as "southern land". The name "Australia" became popular with the publication of Captain Matthew Flinders's Voyage to Terra Australis in 1814. He was the first person to circumnavigate the Australian continent. The British Admiralty finally approved this name for the continent only in 1824.

After Cook's travels to these places, it finally became clear that Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica are not one continent. The main goal for Cook is the mysterious southern continent, and Cook began to move towards the supposed mainland from the Pacific Ocean. But I didn't get there. Returning in 1771 from a three-year voyage to England, he received a captain, but the Admiralty did not give him a rest and urgently sent him again to look for the southern mainland. It was advisable to find him before the French.

And so in the summer of 1772, almost simultaneously with the French expedition of Kerguelen, the English ships Resolution and Adventure left for the southern hemisphere of the globe. There were 192 people on board. In November 1773, with the Antarctic summer approaching, Cook left the shores of New Zealand and moved south. Cook came “close” to the mainland, discovering the South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia. After the 62nd parallel we had to move south among giant icebergs. For the first time in history, European ships crossed the Antarctic Circle. Ice fields and icebergs stretched all around. In case of mistakes or failure, the small ships were doomed to sink into the icy water to the bottom of the ocean. But Cook moved further and further, hoping to see the Southland. At the end of January 1774, Cook's expedition reached the southernmost point of the campaign: 71°10 south latitude and 106°54 west longitude. A great thing was done.

The great navigator James Cook was the first to get close to Antarctica in 1774.

On January 30, 1774 Cook wrote: “I have traveled further south than any previous navigator and have reached the limits where human capabilities are exhausted.” But, having penetrated beyond the 71st parallel, Cook still did not find the Southern continent, although the mainland was already close. Cook was approximately 200 kilometers from the nearest protrusion of Antarctica (Thurston Peninsula, off the Amudsen Sea). But there were icebergs and ice fields on the way. Many people know that icebergs are ice mountains (German Eisberg - “ice mountain”). Many people know about the sinking of the Titanic, have read or watched movies. But many people have little idea of ​​the size of these icy mountains. But there are icebergs more than 100 meters high and 100 kilometers long. Icebergs more than 300 kilometers long and about 100 kilometers wide have been found in the waters of Antarctica. About 90 percent of the iceberg's volume is underwater. Most icebergs are, of course, smaller, only a few kilometers long. But when there are many of them, when they are from all sides, and even when there is snow and fog, and even in a strong wind, sailing ships is a difficult and very dangerous matter.

Cook then wrote: “At 4 o’clock in the morning, a dazzling white stripe was noticed in the south - a harbinger of nearby ice fields. Soon the mainmasts saw a continuous ice barrier stretching from east to west over an immense space. The entire southern half of the horizon shone and sparkled with cold lights. I counted 96 summits and peaks along the edge of the ice field. Some of them were very high, and the crests of these icy mountains were barely visible in the veil of low clouds and milky white fog... There was no way to break through the ice. Not only I, but all my companions were firmly convinced that this grandiose field extends further south to the very pole or connects with the mainland somewhere at high latitudes... I proceeded further south than all previous navigators and reached the limits where human possibilities are exhausted... Since it was impossible to break through to the south even a single inch, I decided to turn north...".
(Cook D. Captain Cook’s second trip around the world. - M.: Mysl, 1973. - P. 14-35).

That is, it was not possible to get to the Southern Continent from the South Pacific Ocean. But Cook no longer doubted the existence of a “land of significant size” beyond the Arctic Circle. “However, the greater part of this Southern Continent (assuming it exists) must lie within the Arctic Circle, where the sea is so covered with ice that access to land becomes impossible.”

On February 6, 1775, he made a recording that would soon become known to all navigators and geographers: “The risk involved in sailing these unexplored and ice-covered seas in search of the Southern Continent is so great that no man would ever venture further south than I did. The lands that may be in the south will never be explored...”

- Never! No one! Because of the terrible cold!

But none of the navigators had ever penetrated south from the Atlantic Ocean. We must try, Cook decided. And a year later, Cook's expedition was already in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean. He was the first to cross the Pacific Ocean at these latitudes. He reached Tierra del Fuego. And then he moved around the supposed mainland. Cook discovered several more islands, part of the South Georgia Islands and “Sandwich Land” (he named these islands in honor of the then Lord of the Admiralty). The sight of these islands seemed scary to Cook. “This country is doomed by nature to eternal cold,” he wrote. - Icy islands and floating ice off the coast, huge blocks of ice falling from cliffs into bays, fierce snow storms accompanied by severe frosts can be equally fatal for ships... After such an explanation, the reader will no longer expect my advance to the south... It would be reckless on my part to risk all the results of the expedition...”

I also quote from James Cook's notes: “I walked around the Southern Ocean at high latitudes and... undeniably rejected the possibility of the existence of a continent here, which, if it can be discovered, is only near the pole, in places inaccessible for navigation... An end has been put to further searches for the Southern continent, which is on Over the course of two centuries, it has invariably attracted the attention of some maritime powers and has been a favorite subject of discussion for geographers of all times.”

“I will not deny that there may be a continent or significant land near the pole. On the contrary, I am convinced that such a land exists there, and it is possible that we saw part of it “Sandwich Land” ... These are lands doomed by nature to eternal cold , deprived of the warmth of the sun's rays. But what must be the countries located even further to the south... If someone shows determination and perseverance to resolve this issue, and penetrates further south than me, I will not envy the glory of his discoveries. But I must say that his discoveries will bring little benefit to the world."
(Cook D. Journey to the South Pole and around the world. - M. Yu. 1948. - P. 15-34).

Many historians of Antarctica note that the words of the great navigator James Cook about the impossibility and unnecessaryness of exploring the Southern continent led to the fact that for 45 years no country dared to send an expedition to these frozen places. There is no heaven there, there are no mountains of gold, there are not even any spices there. There is no life there. There is only ice, snow, wind, fog and terrible cold. Useless places for humanity.

Cook never went to Antarctica again. During the third expedition, Cook discovered the Hawaiian Islands, where he was killed by the natives on November 14, 1779.

Russian ships off the coast of Antarctica

Even the Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, in his work “On the Layers of the Earth,” in 1761, that is, before Cook’s voyage, argued that in the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere there are islands and “hardened earth, covered with eternal ice.” Of course, I couldn’t prove it theoretically.

On June 4 (July 16), 1819 (during the reign of Tsar Alexander the First), a Russian expedition under the command of captain of the second rank Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen left Kronstadt. The captain's real name and surname is Fabian Gottlieb Thaddeus von Bellingshausen. Baltic, Russified German (born in what is now Estonia). He was educated in the naval cadet corps in Kronstadt, and took part in the first circumnavigation of Russian ships in 1803-1806 on the frigate Nadezhda under the command of Ivan Kruzenshtern. He was now in command of the sloop of war Vostok. The second sloop, called Mirny, was commanded by Lieutenant Mikhail Lazarev.

From Ivan Krusenstern’s note to the Minister of Naval Affairs: “This expedition, in addition to its main goal - to explore the countries of the South Pole,” must especially check what is true and what is incorrect in the geographical atlases of the southern hemisphere of the globe, replenish us with new discoveries, “so that it can recognized to be, so to speak, the final journey into this sea.” “We should not allow the glory of such an enterprise to be taken away from us; within a short time it will certainly fall to the British or French.”

"Vostok" and "Mirny"

So, the Russian sloops of war "Vostok" and "Mirny" left Kronstadt, quickly reached Copenhagen (Holland), from there to the English port of Portsmouth, in these ports the ordered tools were received and orders of food and special products were replenished (from scurvy, and rum for sailors who had to work in the cold), and then across the Atlantic Ocean to Rio de Janeiro. And from here to the islands that Cook discovered, and then to the east and further around the Southern mainland. The task was to use all the loopholes in the icy space and make our way to the mainland as often as possible. The ships passed beyond the Arctic Circle several times, reaching 65-69 degrees south latitude. Lazarev said: “Cook gave us such a task that we were forced to expose ourselves to the greatest dangers, so as not to lose face, as they say.” And indeed, the Russian sailors carried out their voyage professionally and courageously, stubbornly making their way to the south through uncharted spaces. There are cold waters and ice fields all around, icebergs 20 kilometers wide and long and 35-40 meters high. Storms, fog, snow, ice and cold... The Russians managed to break through to the south to those places where not a single person had appeared. Lieutenant Lazarev was pleased: “What is it like for our Rusachki to walk now?”

Lieutenant Lazarev recorded that on January 8, 1820, near 70° south latitude, unknown land was spotted from both ships. “...We reached a latitude of 69°23"S, where we encountered hard ice of extreme height, and on a beautiful evening then... it extended as far as vision could reach; but we did not enjoy this amazing sight for long, for soon it became cloudy again and we walked along It's usually snow."

The Russians solved a problem that Cook considered unsolvable: they came almost close to the northeastern protrusion of that section of the coast of the “ice continent” of Antarctica, which whalers from Norway saw 110 years later and called the Princess Martha coast.

I quote from an article by E. E. Shvede: “Interesting is the evidence of the Soviet whaling Antarctic expedition on the steamer “Slava”, which was in March 1948 almost at the same point where Bellingshausen was on January 21, 1820 (southern latitude 69° 25", west longitude 1°11"): “We had excellent visibility conditions under clear skies and clearly saw the entire coast and mountain peaks in the interior of the continent at a distance of 50-70 miles on bearings 192° and 200° from this point. When Bellingshausen was here, the visibility range was extremely limited, and he could not observe and survey the mountain peaks located to the south and southwest. The hummocky ice described by Bellingshausen, which stretched from west to east in this area, fully corresponds to the shape of the relief of the coastal strip of Princess Martha Land.”

On January 26, 1820, the ships crossed the Antarctic Circle. On January 28, 1820, Russian ships came close to the edge of the continent. This day is considered the day of the discovery of Antarctica. The following islands were also discovered: Annenkova and Traverse.

On February 18, 1820, the expedition again almost came close to the mainland (the northwestern protrusion of the coast of Princess Ranhilda). For the third time, on February 26, 1820, Russian ships reached only 60°49" south latitude and 49°26" east. (approximately 100 kilometers north of Prince Olaf Land). In November 1820, the expedition set off for the second time to the “ice continent”. In mid-December 1820, the crews withstood a storm at “such great gloom that one could barely see 30 fathoms (one fathom is 2.16 meters) ... The gusts of wind were terrible, the waves rose into the mountains...”(Bellingshausen).

On January 10, 1821 they saw (68°47" south latitude and 90°30" east longitude), “...The sun flashed from the clouds, and its rays illuminated the black rocks of a high, snow-covered island. Soon the gloom set in again, the wind freshened; and the island that appeared to us disappeared like a ghost. On the morning of January 11... we clearly saw a high island covered with snow. At 5 o'clock in the afternoon we were 15 miles from the island... but the broken ice, thickly surrounding the island on all sides, did not allow us to approach it... The sailors, stationed on both boats along the shrouds, shouted "Hurray" three times. .. The open island is named after the creator of the Russian fleet... Peter the Great"(midshipman Pavel Novosilsky).

And on January 28 (16), 1821, in completely clear, beautiful weather in a clear sky, both ships saw land in the south. From the Mirny a very high cape was visible, which was connected by a narrow isthmus with a chain of low mountains extending to the southwest. And from the “East” a mountainous coast covered with snow was visible, except for screes on the mountains and steep rocks. Bellingshausen called it the “Coast of Alexander I” (between 69° and 73° south latitude and 68° and 76° east). “I call this discovery a shore,” said Bellinghausen, “because the distance of the other end to the south has disappeared beyond the limits of our vision.” Unfortunately, the Russian ships were unable to make their way to the shore due to solid ice. The northern tip of the Land of Alexander the First was named the Russian Cape, and the largest peak, 2,180 meters high, was named Mount St. George the Victorious.

Only ninety years after the voyage of “Vostok” and “Mirny” did sailors manage to approach the Land of Alexander the First and examine it from the sea. An airplane flew here for the first time in 1928.

It is now generally accepted that the Land of Alexander the First is not the shore of the mainland, but a large island that is separated from the mainland by a strait of 500 kilometers. There is no complete clarity, because everything is under ice, but even if there is a huge island near the mainland, this does not diminish the significance of the discovery.

At the beginning of February 1821, the Russian expedition completed its journey around the Southern continent. Bellingshausen was the first to complete a complete voyage around Antarctica at latitudes from 60° to 70°. The continent still did not have a name and will not have one for a long time. Bellinghausen and Lazarev did not propose their name. Russian ships moved to Rio de Janeiro, and from there to the shores of Russia. On June 24, 1821, the sloops of war "Vostok" and "Mirny" returned to Kronstadt. The voyage of the Russian expedition lasted 751 days (of which 527 sailing days and 224 anchor days). The ships traveled almost 50 thousand nautical miles.

I quote from Shwede’s article: “The expedition was greeted at home with great celebration and its discoveries were given enormous importance. Only 20 years later the first foreign expedition was sent to Antarctic waters. On this occasion, the leader of this English Antarctic expedition of 1839-1843. James Ross wrote: “The discovery of the southernmost known continent was valiantly conquered by the fearless Bellingshausen, and this conquest remained with the Russians for a period of more than 20 years.”

“In 1867, the German geographer Petermann, noting that in world geographical literature the merits of the Russian Antarctic expedition are completely insufficiently appreciated, directly points to the fearlessness of Bellingshausen, with which he went against Cook’s opinion that had prevailed for 50 years: “For this merit, the name of Bellingshausen can be directly put alongside the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not retreat in the face of difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who followed their own independent path, and therefore were destroyers of barriers to discovery that mark eras.”

Thaddeus Belinshausen

Mikhail Lazarev

================

Expeditions to Antarctica after the Russians

There were no golden mountains on the islands around the Southern mainland. They realized that they wouldn’t be on the mainland either. Everything is covered with a layer of ice several kilometers deep. But interest in the Southern continent (or archipelago) not only has not diminished, but has increased. Interest from industrialists has increased. Huge rookeries of fur seals and other seal species have been discovered on the islands. Creatures who, without asking other animals, called themselves sapiens, rushed south to kill seals, cut out fat, and rip off fur and skin from seals.

Bellingshausen also saw eight fishing vessels near one of the South Shetland Islands. One of the hunters, the American Nathaniel Palmer, told Bellingshausen that Captain Smith, for example, had already killed 60 thousand seals... According to Palmer, up to eighteen of all the ships “in different places” of this Antarctic region gathered, there are often quarrels between industrialists, but before there was no fight yet.

During the warm season, whalers and scout ships, commanded by military officers from different countries, came quite close to the mainland in different places. New islands and new parts of Antarctica were discovered. Americans, Norwegians, British and French appeared here. Ten two remarkable personalities from different nations. Sometimes there was a heated argument about who discovered what. You can already find many articles and books on this topic.

For example, the English captain James Weddell left his mark. At the beginning of 1823, in search of new seal rookeries, he moved south from the Falkland Islands (an archipelago off the coast of South America, an overseas colony of England). “And if you believe his stories” (as many authors often write about him), he was very lucky. His ship "Jane" passed unhindered beyond the 70th parallel, but even there the sea was almost free of ice. Moving further south, he, the first among navigators, reached 74 degrees and 15 minutes south latitude on February 20, 1823. He passed almost 340 kilometers south of the line reached by Cook's expedition. The unknown industrialist, Amundsen noted, became “the star of the Antarctic sky.” Then a strong wind began, Weddell did not take risks and turned back to the north. Weddell named this sea he discovered after the English king George the Fourth. In 1900, the sea was renamed in honor of Weddell himself. But still he was underestimated in his homeland, his career did not take off, and he died, forgotten by everyone, in 1834 at the age of 47.

As has now been precisely proven, this Weddell Sea (the southernmost part of the Atlantic Ocean) extends deep into the Antarctic landmass (at least to 78° south latitude). But previously, many geographers and navigators were convinced that the South Pole did not have extensive land at all. And the extraordinary voyage of Captain Weddell was taken as evidence in favor of the theory: “at the South Pole there is not a continent, but only a huge archipelago.”

Sir James Clark Ross off the coast of Antarctica

The belief in the existence of a continent at the South Pole was especially shaken by the expedition of the great Englishman James Clark Ross. In 1839-1843, on the ships Erebus and Terror, Ross conducted the greatest exploration of that time near the South Pole. The Terror was commanded by Francis Crozier. James Ross discovered another sea off Antarctica, which was named after him. He discovered the greatest ice shelf, which is named after him. Larger than Spain. In 1841, James Ross discovered the Antarctic volcanoes Erebus and Terror, named after his ships. In 1842, James Ross was the first navigator to cross 78° south latitude. Ross also explored the shores of Victoria Land in Antarctica.

John R. Weedman. Portrait of Commander J.C. Ross

Sir John Ross, 1777-1856 - English navigator; distinguished himself in the war with France; in 1818 he was sent with two ships to find the northwest passage to Baffin Bay and entered Lancaster Sound, but could not go further due to ice. More successful was Ross's expedition in 1829-33, on the steamship Victoria: it led to the exploration of the shores of Boothia and the land of King William and to the discovery of the north magnetic pole. Having wintered twice in Boothia Bay, he was forced to leave the ship and return by boat to Lancaster Sound, where the crew, having wintered again, were received by a ship sent to help him. In 1850-51. Ross took part in the expedition to find Franklin. Printed: “Voyage of discovery for the purpose of exploring Baffin’s Bay” (London, 1819; German translation, Leipzig, 1820), “Narrative of a second voyage in search of a North-West Passage” (London, 1834) , "A treatise on navigation by steam" (2nd ed., London, 1837), "Rear-Admiral sir John Franklin" (ibid., 1855).

James Ross was only twelve years old when he joined the navy under his uncle, Captain John Ross (1777-1856). He was eighteen years old when John Ross first went to the Arctic. Young James Ross accompanied him on the ship "Isabella", went around Baffin Bay with him and explored part of Baffin Island with him. At that time, Captain John Ross did not yet have experience in ice navigation, so he did not dare to enter Lancaster Sound, thinking that it had shoals, and returned home without learning anything interesting. But young James Ross had already seen icebergs and ice fields, experienced the struggle with storms, fogs and strong currents.

A year later, James Ross found himself in the Arctic again and finally entered Lancaster Sound with the Parry expedition. Parry's ships sailed further into Barrow Strait, explored the shores of Bathurst and Melville Islands, and wintered near the southern shore of Melville.

Parry barely had time to finish writing the report on his journey when he had to equip two ships - Fury and Hecla - for a new expedition. Young Ross went with him again. This time they discovered the strait separating Baffin Island from the Melville Peninsula, and called it the Fury and Hecla Strait.

In 1824 James Ross rode with Parry for the third time. They tried to sail west through Lancaster Sound, but the ice conditions were unfavorable and they were able to do little. On the way, the Fury suffered an accident. For twenty-five days the crew tried in every possible way to save the ship, but in the end they were forced to abandon it.

In 1829 Ross sailed again under his uncle's command. But this time he was already doing responsible and independent work. The expedition set off on a tiny boat, the Victory, equipped with a paddle wheel and a small steam engine. This was the first feeble attempt to use a mechanical engine on an expedition ship, but the machine soon failed. "Victory" penetrated into the Prince Regent's Strait near the site of the sinking of "Fury". Ross named the peninsula along which they sailed Boothia - in honor of Felix Booth, who gave money for the expedition. James Ross made a foray ashore on this peninsula and for the first time determined the location of the North Magnetic Pole. He also discovered King William's Land.

The expedition spent four winters in a row in the area. Ice damaged the ship and it had to be abandoned. The people went to Lancaster Sound, where they were picked up by a whaling ship and taken to England.

In 1839, Ross Jr. was appointed commander of an expedition heading to the southern polar waters. Two old warships were placed at his disposal: the Erebus and the Terror. They were heavy, slow-moving, but durable, and strength is a very important quality for sailing among ice.

Erebus was commanded by Ross, Terror by Crozier. The purpose of the expedition was to study terrestrial magnetism by making a large number of measurements at high southern latitudes. The Admiralty trusted Ross and gave him freedom to choose his route. Ross was very pleased that, having found the North Magnetic Pole, he now had the opportunity to look for the South.

He believed that he would get closest to it if he circled the land that Wilkes had seen from the east.

In January 1841, Ross encountered a solid pack. The test of his resourcefulness, will and experience had come. He walked forward decisively, breaking the ice field. From descriptions of later voyages in the South Polar Basin it is clear that Antarctic ice is not easy to deal with even for steamships armed with powerful modern engines, and Ross's ships were sailing and did not have any auxiliary engines. In addition, the sails were straight, and this did not allow sailing at an acute angle to the wind, which greatly limited the possibility of tacking.

Ross entered the ice, from which only a few ships emerged victorious. And his courage was rewarded: breaking through the ice field, he came out onto a wide expanse of open water.

After this, he rounded Cape Adare, moved south of it, without encountering ice, and on January 28, at 78° south latitude, he saw two majestic snowy peaks rising almost vertically from the ice and sea. These were volcanoes, one of which was spewing steam, smoke and ash at that time. Heavy black clouds of ash hung over the dazzling white snow fields and glaciers. Ross named these mountains Erebus and Terror - in honor of the ships that brought him to this amazing corner of the world.

A colossal ice cliff with a height of 45 to 75 meters stretched along the coast. This was the edge of a gigantic glacier sliding into the sea. This glacier was subsequently named the Ross Barrier.

Ross made magnetic measurements and explored the shore of the sea he discovered. His observations and calculations showed that the South Magnetic Pole lies close to the coast, inland, protected by an ice barrier, mountains and glaciers. Ross traveled around the sea that now bears his name. From the south it was limited by a giant ice barrier - a wall stretching for 500 kilometers. In January 1841, Ross reached 78°4" south latitude, but he could not overcome the barrier. He also did not find a single suitable place for wintering. Then he turned north again, made his way through the pack and brought the ships to the island of Tasmania.

Ross attempted to approach the South Magnetic Pole two more times. The second attempt was made in 1842. This time, Ross approached the shores of Antarctica 2,200 kilometers further east than during the first expedition. Ice conditions were not favorable for travel, and the progress was long and slow. However, he broke his own record.

Today it is not easy to imagine all the difficulties that Ross encountered during his Antarctic travels. Ross twice had to face death face to face, but both times he came out of a dangerous situation with great resourcefulness. One day, when Ross's ships were making their way through the ice fields, they were overtaken by a terrible storm. No matter how strong the wind is, a solid pack prevents the waves from raging. But now the pack was fragmented and consisted of separate huge ice floes. Heavy ice floes threatened to wipe out everything in their path.

Ross later said that when his ships rose on the crests of the waves, there was an abyss between them, which was teeming with ice floes hitting each other. It seemed that the ships were about to rush into this abyss and collide. However, the wave rolled, the ships ended up on opposite sides of it, and from the deck of one ship only the tops of the masts of the other were visible.

The ships were so out of control that they could not even be moved away from each other to a safe distance. Due to impacts on the ice, both had their rudders severely damaged. When the storm finally subsided, the ships approached opposite sides of the large flat ice floe and moored tightly to it. The carpenters and mechanics removed the rudders and fixed one of them and replaced the other with a new one. In addition, during the stay at this unique floating dock, spare rudders were made in case of another accident.

Another time, when both ships were racing in the twilight, driven by a storm, suddenly a huge ice wall grew in front of them.

The roar and crash of the surf quickly grew. Ross put the Erebus on port tack and sailed as steeply as possible into the wind. He already thought that the maneuver was a success when the Terror suddenly emerged from the darkness, rushing straight towards him.

On the "Terror" they also noticed an ice mountain, but, without making out the exact position of the "Erebus", they tried to go around the iceberg on the starboard side, that is, they went exactly towards the "Erebus". Ross quickly put the ship on another tack, but the collision could no longer be avoided. The ships hit each other with great force. Erebus lost her bowsprit, the top of her forward mast and several other riggings. The blow was so strong that the claw of the anchor, hanging at the side of the Erebus, pierced its strong hull and went completely inside.

After the collision, the rigging of both ships became entangled and became entangled. Neither of them could maneuver. Each passing wave pushed them against each other. The sound of broken beams and crushed boats was constantly heard. And the storm all the time drove the grappling ships to where the menacing howl of the surf could be heard. Finally they disengaged.

"Terror", which suffered less, again tried to get around the iceberg. "Erebus" could not turn around, since the ice mountain was already very close. Then Ross tried to catch the wind again. He succeeded, and with the help of the rolling waves of the surf, he pulled the ship back a little, avoiding a serious collision with the iceberg. However, it was impossible to hold on like this for long. Suddenly Ross noticed a gap in the ice wall. In the thickening darkness, only a black gap was visible, but he hoped that behind it was hidden a strip of clear water separating the two icebergs. He decided to take advantage of the last hope of salvation and, setting the sails more fully to the wind, rushed into the narrow dark space. His calculation turned out to be correct: the crevice had an exit, and in front of him were two ice mountains. Thanks to the amazing presence of mind of the captain and the exceptionally hard work of the entire crew, the Erebus passed safely through a narrow passage that was only three times the width of the ship. Waves and spray washed over the deck from bow to stern.

After getting rid of the ice mountains, Ross quickly lit the signal lights to find out what happened to the Terror. A minute of agonizing waiting passed, and in the distance a return fire began to light up. "Terror" managed to turn into the wind and get around the icebergs.

Ross's voyage in polar waters lasted four years. Civilization owes Ross the discovery of the Ross Sea and Queen Victoria Land in Antarctica. On September 2, 1843, he returned to England, and his entire crew was healthy, only one sailor died during a storm off Cape Horn. On his return, Ross was presented with a knighthood.

Since Ross had no intention of traveling any further, he was ordered to turn over both ships to Franklin to search for the Northwest Passage.

During this search, Franklin, along with all his companions, disappeared into the Arctic ice. Years passed, and nothing was heard about the missing expedition. Ross became more and more worried. He felt the need to do something to find the man who had helped him a lot when he was governor of Tasmania. He did not forget how they stood together on the deck of the Erebus in Hobart and with what interest Franklin listened to his stories about Antarctica.

In 1848, James Ross was the first to equip a rescue expedition on the ship Enterprise. Two years later, the government called for help from old John Ross, who immediately set out on a search. He was then already seventy-three years old.

By this time, both Rosses had visited both the Arctic and Antarctic and worked hard to improve the map of both of these areas. However, nature was extremely reluctant to reveal its secrets. Northern ice expeditions have always been associated with extreme danger to life. The sad fate of John Franklin serves as further confirmation of this.

After the voyage of James Ross, Antarctic research ceased for almost half a century. Among the geographers of the globe there was complete confusion regarding the lands near the south pole. Disputes between geographers continued until the beginning of the 20th century. Many geographers wisely ridiculed the widespread belief among non-specialists in the existence of a single southern continent. “These are the last remnants of the old dream of the Southern Mainland.” The very venerable and respected Friedrich Ratzel, the “pillar” of German geography, sociologist; the founder of anthropogeography, geopolitics, and also the theory of diffusionism, stated: “It is extremely probable that of the land that is now mapped within Antarctica, a significant part has no right to be depicted as land. All that land that was seen only from afar is doubtful.” Ratzel and other respectable skeptics did not doubt only the existence of such high-mountain islands as Balleny, or Victoria Land, where volcanoes were active at the time of discovery. But the “experts” have greatly disgraced themselves in this matter. There is a continent, Antarctica.

===========

In 1894-95, the fishing steamer Antarctica appeared off the coast of Antarctica. The captain is Norwegian Lars Christensen. During this expedition, a European scientist first set foot on the shores of Antarctica. It happened like this.

The young biologist Carsten Borchgrevink, having learned that the Antarctic was heading to Antarctica, persuaded the shipowner to allow him to at least get a job as a sailor on the ship. The biologist, when he saw that the ship was very close in the Ross Sea near Victoria Land, asked the captain to take him on a boat to the shore. On January 24, 1895, a scientist with a bag set foot on the shore of Antarctica. He collected some lichen, proving that life exists in the ice-free areas of Antarctica. Subsequently, several more species of lichens and mosses were found in different places of the mainland, and even three species of flowering plants on Graham Land.

From the end of 1897 to April 1899, a Belgian research expedition was in Antarctica on the ship Belgica. Several scientists from different countries. On March 10, 1898, in the Bellingshausen Sea, the steamship was frozen into ice. The crew of the steamship was forced to spend the winter there, drifting in the ice south of the island of Peter I. The ship was freed only a year later and at the end of March 1899 it went north. This was the first ever wintering in Antarctic waters at high latitudes.

In 1899, Carsten Borchgrevink and four other young scientists wintered on the mainland for the first time, off Cape Adare. They were delivered there by the Southern Cross steamer, equipped with funds from a London publisher. The winter was very harsh, often with strong hurricanes. Nikolai Hansen, the first victim of the Antarctic winter, has died. In the summer, the Southern Cross took off its winterers and went to the Ross Ice Barrier. It was then noticed that since the time of James Ross, the Ice Barrier had retreated several tens of kilometers to the south. The researchers managed to climb the barrier. Borchgrevink and two companions managed to travel on sleds with a dog sled across the ice to 78° 50"south latitude. Scientists have found that the Ross Sea is always navigable to a much higher latitude in summer than any other Antarctic sea, and that the Ice Barrier is not an insurmountable obstacle to those who venture to the South Pole.

Discovery of the South Pole

In 1910-1912, the already famous polar explorer Raoul Amundsen led an expedition to Antarctica on the ship Fram with the goal of being the first to reach the South Pole. All preparations were kept secret. Most of the provisions for the expedition were supplied by the Norwegian army (the expedition members were to test a new Arctic diet), ski suits for the expedition members were made from decommissioned army blankets, and the army also provided tents. A Norwegian-born tycoon living in Argentina, Don Pedro Christoffersen, provided money for additional supplies and kerosene.

On January 13, 1911, Amundsen sailed to the Ross Ice Barrier in Antarctica in Whale Bay. A base camp was established here to prepare for the trip to the South Pole. At the same time, Robert Scott's English expedition set up camp in McMurdo Sound, 650 kilometers from Amundsen. Who will reach the South Pole faster?

R. Amundsen

The first attempt to go to the Pole was made by Amundsen in August 1911, but very low temperatures (minus 56 degrees Celsius) prevented him from doing so. The skis did not slip in such cold weather, and the dogs could not sleep at night in such cold weather.

Finally, on October 19, 1911, a group of five Norwegians led by Amundsen on four sleighs pulled by 52 dogs set off on a long journey. The temperature was below 40 degrees Celsius, a strong wind was blowing, and beyond the 85th parallel the difficult ascent from the Ross Ice Shelf to the high-altitude edge of the Central Antarctic Plateau, the Dronning Maud Mountains, began. Amundsen's merit is the discovery of these mountains. On the plateau (which they called “The Plain of King Haakon the Seventh”), after some of the food and fuel had been consumed, the Norwegians killed 36 dogs. The remaining dogs ate dog meat, and the Norwegians ate soup and cutlets from fresh dog meat with appetite. On the plateau itself, the Norwegians rose to 3300 meters, and then began a gentle descent. (Only 12 dogs later returned to the base. This caused violent protests from animal protection societies in some countries). Each member of Amundsen's team had two suits: an Eskimo suit made from reindeer skins and a ski suit made from decommissioned army woolen blankets. Modern wind tunnel testing of mannequins showed that Amundsen's suits protected against cold and wind 25% better than those used by other expeditions. Before ascending to the plateau, the Eskimo costumes were discarded.

The Norwegians reached the South Pole on December 15-16-17, 1911, covering a distance of 1,500 kilometers, pitching a tent there and raising the Norwegian flag at an altitude of 2,700 meters. On December 17, the Norwegians turned north. Along the way, they continued to kill dogs, and thus the people and the remaining sled dogs ate fresh dog meat, and made it to the nearest warehouse without any problems. At the exact time Amundsen calculated, the Norwegians returned to Whale Bay on January 25, 1912. The entire campaign took 99 days.

But only on March 7, 1912, in the city of Hobart (Tasmania), Amundsen notified the world of his victory and the safe return of the expedition.

Norwegian flag at the South Pole

Amundsen and five of his comrades disappeared on June 18, 1928 in the area of ​​Bear Island (Barents Sea). The crew of the plane took part in the search for the expedition of explorer Umberto Nobile (inventor of airships), who crashed while trying to fly an airship over the Arctic. On April 8, 1982, a Soviet Alpha-class supernova nuclear-powered fighter submarine crashed near Bear Island. 7 years later, also in April, the nuclear submarine Komsomolets sank around the same place.

(To be continued)

Even in ancient times, people believed that in the southern polar region there was a large, unexplored land. There were legends about her. They said all sorts of things, but most often they said that she was rich in gold and diamonds. Brave sailors set off on their journey to the South Pole. In search of the mysterious land, they discovered many islands, but no one was able to see the mysterious mainland

The famous English navigator James Cook made a special trip in 1775 to “find a continent in the Arctic Ocean,” but he, too, retreated before the cold, squally winds and ice.

Does it really exist, this unknown land?

On July 4, 1819, two Russian ships left the port of Kronstadt. On one of them - on the sloop "Vostok" - the commander was captain Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen. The second sloop, Mirny, was commanded by Lieutenant Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. Both officers - experienced and fearless sailors - had already traveled around the world by that time. Now they were given a task: to get as close as possible to the South Pole and discover unknown lands. Bellingshausen was appointed head of the expedition.

Start of the voyage

Four months later, both sloops entered the Brazilian port of Rio de Janeiro. The teams got a short break. After the holds were replenished with water and food, the ships weighed anchor and continued on their way. Bad weather became more and more frequent. It was getting colder. There were squalls of rain. A thick fog enveloped everything around.

In order not to get lost, the ships did not move far from one another. At night, lanterns were lit on the masts. And if the sloops lost sight of each other, they were ordered to fire their cannons. Every day "Vostok" and "Mirny" came closer and closer to the mysterious land. When the wind died down and the sky cleared, the sailors admired the play of the sun in the blue-green waves of the ocean and watched with interest the whales, sharks and dolphins. They appeared nearby and accompanied the ships for a long time. On the ice floes, seals began to be seen, and then penguins - large birds that walked funny, stretched out in a column. Russian people have never seen such amazing birds before. The first iceberg, a floating mountain of ice, also amazed travelers.

Having discovered several small islands and marked them on maps, the expedition headed for Sandwich Land, which Cook was the first to discover. The English navigator did not have the opportunity to explore it and believed that a large island lay in front of him. Bellingshausen and Lazarev managed to go further than Cook and study Sandwich Land more precisely. They found out that this is not one island, but a whole series of islands. Making their way between the heavy ice, "Vostok" and "Mirny" tried to find a passage to the south at every opportunity. Soon there were so many icebergs near the sloops that they had to maneuver every now and then to avoid being crushed by these huge bodies.

And we saw the mysterious shore

On January 15, 1820, a Russian expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time. The next day, from Mirny and Vostok they saw a high strip of ice on the horizon. The sailors initially mistook them for clouds. But when the fog cleared, it became clear that a shore of lumpy piles of ice appeared before the ships.

This was also confirmed by aerial photographs taken in our time: “Vostok” and “Mirny” were indeed located 20 kilometers from the sixth continent.

The Russian ships were unable to advance even deeper to the south: solid ice blocked the path. The fogs did not stop, the wet snow fell continuously. And then there was a new misfortune: on the sloop “Mirny” an ice floe broke through the hull, and a leak formed in the hold. Captain Bellingshausen decided to head to the shores of Australia and repair the Mirny there in Port Jackson (now Sydney).

Off the tropical islands

The repair turned out to be difficult. Because of it, the sloops stood in the Australian port for almost a month. But then the Russian ships raised their sails and, having fired their cannons, left for New Zealand to explore the tropical latitudes of the Pacific Ocean while winter lasted in the Southern Hemisphere.

Now the sailors were pursued not by the icy wind and blizzard, but by the scorching rays of the sun and the sweltering heat. The expedition discovered a chain of coral islands, which were named after the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812.

When the ships dropped anchor near the inhabited islands, many boats with natives rushed towards the sloops. The sailors were heaped with pineapples, oranges, coconuts and bananas. In exchange, the islanders received items useful to them: saws, nails, needles, dishes, fabrics, fishing gear, in a word, everything that was necessary on the farm. On July 21, "Vostok" and "Mirny" stood off the coast of the island of Tahiti. The Russian sailors felt as if they were in a fairy-tale world - this piece of land was so beautiful. Dark high mountains stuck their peaks into the bright blue sky. Lush coastal greenery shone emerald against the background of azure waves and golden sand. The King of the Tahitians, Pomare, wished to be on board the Vostok. Bellingshausen kindly received him, treated him to dinner and even ordered him to fire several shots in honor of the king. Pomare was very pleased. True, with every shot he hid behind Bellingshausen’s back.

Back to the land of cold

Returning to Port Jackson, the sloops began to prepare for a new difficult voyage to the land of eternal cold. Three weeks later the ships entered the ice zone. Now Russian ships were going around the Antarctic Circle from the opposite side.

"I see land!" - such a signal came from the Mirny to the flagship on January 10, 1821. All members of the expedition flocked on board in excitement. And at this time the sun, as if wanting to congratulate the sailors, looked out for a short moment from the torn clouds. A rocky island was visible ahead. The next day they came closer to him. Having assembled the team, Bellingshausen solemnly announced: “The open island will bear the name of the creator of the Russian fleet, Peter the Great.” Three times "Hurray!" rolled over the harsh waves. A week later, the expedition discovered a coast with a high mountain. The land was called the Coast of Alexander I. The waters themselves washing this land and the island of Peter I were later called the Bellingshausen Sea.

The journey of "Vostok" and "Mirny" continued for more than two years. It ended in his native Kronstadt on July 24, 1821. Russian navigators traveled more than twice the distance around the globe on sloops.

World Reserve

The Norwegian Roald Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole at the end of 1911. His expedition traveled by skis and dog sleds. A month later, another expedition approached the pole. It was led by the Englishman Robert Scott. This, undoubtedly, was also a very courageous and strong-willed man. But when he saw the Norwegian flag left by Amundsen, Scott experienced a terrible shock: he was only the second! We've been here before! The Englishman no longer had the strength to go back. “God Almighty, what a terrible place!..” he wrote in the diary with a weakening hand.

But who owns the sixth continent, where valuable minerals and minerals have been discovered deep under the ice?

Many countries claimed different parts of the continent. Mining would, of course, lead to the destruction of this cleanest continent on Earth. And the human mind won. Antarctica has become a world nature reserve - the "Land of Science". Now only scientists and researchers from 67 countries work here at 40 scientific stations. Their work will help to better know and understand our planet.

In honor of the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev, Russian stations in Antarctica are named “Vostok” and “Mirny”.

The name of the famous cartographer and discoverer is associated with many amazing stories. James Cook was born in 1728 in Hawaii into the family of a Scottish farm laborer. After leaving school, he became a cabin boy on the Hercules, where he gained his first experience of sailing on the high seas. In 1755, Cook enlisted in the British Navy. There he quickly climbed the career ladder and took part in battles. After diligent study, James Cook mastered the profession of a cartographer and went on sea voyages with only one goal - to discover new lands. So what did James Cook discover?

The discoverer's contribution to history

On instructions from the British Admiralty, Cook sailed around the world three times. In addition, while participating in the Seven Years' War, the cartographer completed one important assignment for the British Crown. He explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence in detail and also mapped the exact boundaries of Quebec. Thanks to his efforts, the British managed to capture these lands with minimal losses. And England significantly expanded its zone of influence on the world stage.

Cook's first expedition began in 1768. The official purpose of the expedition was designated as observing the passage of Venus through the disk of the Sun. In fact, the expedition members were looking for the Southern Continent. After all, England needed new territories for colonization.

New Zealand and Australia were poorly explored by Europeans at the time. Therefore, great discoveries were expected from this expedition. The Endeavor sailed from Plymouth and reached the shores of Tahiti on April 10, 1768. It was in Tahiti that researchers made all the necessary astronomical measurements. James Cook treated the local population very tactfully, and no one interfered with the team.

Then a course was set for New Zealand. To repair the ship, the sailors needed a quiet bay, which Cook himself found between two islands of the archipelago. Today the place is still called Cook Inlet.

After a short break, the Endeavor headed for the shores of Northern Australia. There the pioneers were overtaken by trouble. The ship ran aground and was undergoing repairs for a long time. After it was repaired, the expedition traveled another 4,000 km to the east by sea. Where they discovered the strait between New Guinea and Australia. Thanks to the discovery of the strait, the world learned that these lands are not a single continent.

In 1771 the ship reached Indonesia. Due to the climatic conditions of the country, the entire Endeavor crew fell ill with malaria. Later, dysentery was added to this disease. People died very quickly. And Cook decided to interrupt the expedition by sending the Endeavor home.

A year later (in 1772), Cook again set foot on the deck of the Resolution ship. The Adventure, the second ship of the expedition, was also sent on a voyage to discover the Southern continent. It was not possible to discover Antarctica during this journey, but new islands of the Pacific Ocean appeared on the map.

In addition to what James Cook discovered in a geographical sense, he also made one medical discovery. He understood the importance of vitamins in the diet of sailors. Fruits and vegetables saved everyone who fell ill from scurvy on their second trip around the world. The islands of New Caledonia and the island of South Georgia became the main discoveries of the second expedition.

To explore these lands, the Resolution crossed the Antarctic Circle twice. But the ice blocking the road did not allow Cook to swim further. When food supplies ran out, the ships headed back to England.

Opening a sea route from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean - such a task seemed difficult to accomplish even for the most experienced sailors. But Cook is not used to giving up. And in 1776 he set off on the ship Resolution, accompanied by the Discovery ship, to the Pacific Ocean.

During this expedition the Hawaiian Islands were discovered. In 1778, the ships again moved to the coast of North America, but were caught in a storm and were forced to return to the bay in Hawaii. This decision was fatal for Cook and several team members. Relations with the natives, which did not work out from the very beginning, became even more strained after the return of the ships.

The local population more than once tried to rob members of the expedition. And after one such attempt, the crew of the ship where James Cook worked entered into a fierce battle with the natives. Many were captured and eaten by the natives. Cook was one of them. The date of his death is February 14, 1779.

After Cook's death, the ship's crew attacked the tribal camps, driving the aborigines into the mountains. Members of the expedition demanded that the remains of the dead be given to them. As a result, they were given parts from the bodies that the sailors buried at sea, according to their customs. The ships then headed for the British Isles.

The goal of the third expedition was not fully achieved. Despite Cook's zeal and efforts, the Pacific Route could not be opened. And it is difficult to give a simple answer to the question of what James Cook discovered. The navigator mapped many islands and archipelagos and made several scientific discoveries. He diligently found new lands for the English government. He studied the life of various tribes. And he dreamed that someday the Southern continent would be found by discoverers.