Methodology for assessing the effectiveness of new technology and its practical application. Economic efficiency of new technology Economic efficiency of introducing new technology at an enterprise

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The fundamental differences between the innovative activities of an enterprise and current production are that the assessment of the current state of the enterprise, including equipment and technology, is based on identifying the conditions for success based on past experience and prevailing trends. This analysis is characterized by the use of retrospective correlation between the results of business activities and costs. Typical approaches are: comprehensive economic analysis of the efficiency of economic activity, analysis of the technical and organizational level of production, analysis of the use of production resources and analysis of the relationship between cost, production volume and profit.

To analyze the innovative activity of an enterprise, an analysis and forecast of future success factors in conditions of uncertainty and justification of the costs of the future period are required. In contrast to the deterministic economic processes of current production, the processes of introducing new equipment and technology with their subsequent commercialization are stochastic in nature. Therefore, the analysis of the impact on profit should be based on forecasting methods, expert assessment methods, multiple regression analysis, as well as situational and simulation modeling.

Indicators of the technical level of innovation

In a market economy, the analysis of the effectiveness of innovation activity becomes more complicated, acquiring a multi-stage and multi-stage character. At the first stage of analyzing the effectiveness of new equipment and technology, traditional general and specific indicators of the technical level and efficiency of new equipment and technology should be used. The classification of indicators of the technical level of innovation is given in Fig. 16.3.

Rice. 16.3. Classification of indicators of the technical level of new equipment and technology

To successfully implement an innovation, it is necessary to select an adequate technological solution and an appropriate level of organization and production apparatus. Analysis of the level of equipment and technology used requires research not only of novelty and priority, but also of such important properties as the ability to adapt to existing conditions, the ability to re-adjust the production apparatus. Particular attention should be paid to such a property of technology, technology and organization as flexibility.

In the context of an expanding market space and multiple diversification, the pace of renewal is increasing, and the variety of types of products and the equipment and technology used for their production is increasing. In production, goods, equipment and technology simultaneously appear at different stages of the life cycle, belonging to different models and generations. In this regard, the variability of technology and the need to adapt the production apparatus to these changes sharply increases.

There is a growing need to use special techniques to increase the “survival” effect of new technological solutions to existing production conditions. The “technology – technology – product” system is constructed using special methods based on the so-called built-in heterogeneity, i.e. skillful combination of functional characteristics of fragments of newly developed technological solutions with existing production processes.

Indicators of the technical level of production

Methodologically, one should distinguish between indicators of economic efficiency of increasing the technical and organizational level and indicators of the level itself, i.e. state of engineering, technology, organization, management and R&D. An approximate diagram of the most important indicators of the achieved technical and organizational level of production is shown in Fig. 16.4.

An increase in the technical and organizational level of production ultimately manifests itself in the level of use of the main elements of the production process: labor, means of labor and objects of labor. That is why such economic indicators as labor productivity, capital productivity, material intensity, working capital turnover, reflecting the intensity of use of production resources, are indicators of the economic efficiency of increasing the level of new equipment and technology used. The above indicators (labor productivity, capital productivity, material intensity and working capital turnover) are called private intensification indicators. Their analysis should be carried out according to factors of the technical and organizational level. Along with specific indicators, generalizing indicators are also used.

All summary indicators, characterizing the increase in economic efficiency of technical and organizational development activities, are combined into the following groups:

increase in labor productivity, relative deviation in the number of employees and wage fund;

increase in material productivity (reduction in material consumption), relative.

increase in capital productivity (decrease in capital intensity) of fixed production assets, relative deviation of fixed production assets;

increment in the rate of turnover of working capital, relative deviation (release or binding) of working capital;

increase in production volume through intensified use of labor, material and financial resources;

increase in profit or cost of production;

increase in indicators of the financial condition and solvency of the enterprise.

Rice. 16.4. Scheme of indicators of the technical and organizational level of production deviation in the costs of material resources

The proposed system of indicators of the economic efficiency of new technology is the same for all sectors of material production. The analysis methodology is given in the Methodological Recommendations for a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of measures aimed at accelerating scientific and technological progress.

Technological level of production

The progressiveness of the applied technical and technological solutions is closely related to the level of production capabilities and the so-called technological level of production.

To the greatest extent, the technological level of production depends on the technological method of influencing the substance, the technological intensity of the process, the technological controllability of the process, and its adaptive and organizational level.

The level of technological impact is characterized by the type and degree of impact, the use of technical means on the subject of labor (i.e., by the degree of mechanization, automation, by the type of physical, chemical, mechanical or combined impacts).

The level of technological intensity of the process is characterized by the degree of use of material, energy and time parameters of the technological process. The level of technological controllability shows the flexibility of the process and the ability to change its parameters under the influence of the requirements of external conditions in order to achieve maximum efficiency.

The level of technological organization of the process is determined by the degree to which optimal structural connections are achieved in the technological process according to the principle of continuity, multiplicity, waste-free process, etc.

The level of adaptation of the technological process is characterized by the most realistic possibility of technology functioning in compliance with a given regime in conjunction with existing production and the environment.

Generalized criteria for the technological level of production are presented in Table. 16.1.

Table 16.1. Generalized criteria for the technological level of production

Economic assessment of innovations

The quality of a technological process is realized in its ability to create innovation. It is assessed both from the standpoint of technical and technological characteristics and a system of economic indicators. Widely used technical-economic and functional-cost analysis methods make it possible to establish the relationship between technical and economic indicators of processes and find an algorithm for the optimal functioning of production systems.

As follows from the above, a very important stage of innovation activity is the search for fundamental relationships and interdependencies between indicators of the technical level, the quality of the innovations used, the conditions of their production and operation, and economic efficiency. The fact is that it is impossible to solve the problem of quality and economic efficiency of new equipment and technology separately. It is most advisable to apply a generalized technical and economic model (or in the simplest version, a block diagram), which reveals the impact of technical level indicators on generalized technical and economic indicators: cost, productivity, reduced costs, etc. To do this, it is necessary at the very initial stage of designing an innovation to choose an alternative option: 1) optimal properties of the innovation with maximum economic efficiency or 2) the most perfect level of innovation with satisfactory economic efficiency.

The beneficial effect of innovation both in production and in operation cannot always be assessed using cost estimates. Therefore, two criteria are used: the criterion of minimum reduced costs and the integral (generalizing) indicator of the quality of innovation. If it is impossible to establish a quantitative functional relationship between particular quality indicators and given costs, then expert or statistical methods are used to determine the weighted average generalized indicator of innovation, calculated as a weighted arithmetic average or as a weighted geometric average.

The next step may be to establish the relationship between the value of the given costs and a general indicator of the technical level of the product or process. The tool for this approach is correlation and regression modeling.

The proposed methodology uses both traditional regulatory approaches and the cost-effectiveness method. With the change in the economic situation during the transition to a market economy, a reorientation of the criteria for the technical and technological level and economic efficiency of innovations took place for the enterprise. In the short term, the introduction of innovations worsens economic indicators, increases production costs, and requires additional capital investments in the development of R&D. In addition, intensive innovation processes, including the introduction of new equipment and technology, disrupt stability, increase uncertainty and increase the risk of production activities. Moreover, innovations do not allow full use of production resources, reduce capacity utilization, and can lead to underutilization of personnel and mass layoffs.

On the one hand, the innovative activity of an enterprise is a system of successively carried out production and commercial activities, where the quality of innovation entirely depends on the state and technical and organizational level of the production environment.

On the other hand, it is the market that is the decisive arbiter of the selection of innovations. He rejects the highest priority innovations if they do not meet commercial benefits and maintain the competitive position of the enterprise. That is why technological innovations are divided into priority ones, important for the economic and technological security of the country, and into commercial innovations necessary for an enterprise in the conditions of transition to a market economy. Criteria for the technical level and effectiveness of new technologies must be adequate to the requirements of scientific and technical government policy, commercial feasibility, and relevant sources of funding.

Thus, for the profitability and financial stability of an enterprise, new technology in more than half of the cases is undesirable. Moreover, technology variability in industries characterized by long life cycles, capital-intensive and capital-intensive industries can cause reparable damage if forecasted, implemented and operated incorrectly.

In knowledge-intensive, progressive industries, the situation is the other way around: it is technological “shifts and breakthroughs” and the introduction of new technologies that sharply increase the competitiveness of an enterprise and lead to maximizing profits in the long term. Moreover, since the beginning of the 90s. The competitive status of large companies is largely associated not only with new products, but also to a greater extent with the presence of the latest technologies in the company. This is the case with the flagships of the world economy: Sony, Panasonic, IBM, General Electric, Johnson & Johnson, as well as the Russian Gazprom and Rosvooruzhenie, etc.

The transition to the production of new systems and new generations of products is possible only on the basis of new technologies. In this case, special methods for adapting organization, management and marketing are necessary.

When introducing fundamentally new technological solutions, unprofitable production activities may arise not only in the short term, but also in the long term, this can be explained due to several reasons:

the use of new technology is started prematurely, before costs are brought into line with the real price level;

the enterprise does not have sufficient experience in implementing and operating new technology;

The R&D underlying the development of new technology is not competitive;

no real analysis of economic conditions, corporate structure and market segmentation has been carried out;

there is no potential demand;

the marketing strategy is incorrectly chosen;

the behavior of possible competitors is not taken into account;

the influence of brand factors (the image of the company, its trademark, its industry, etc.) was not revealed.

The latter deserves additional explanation, since in structurally weak or old industries the appearance of a new product of high quality, but not corresponding to the price, can cause a sharp drop in demand, including for models of the previous generation. To eliminate the inefficiency of technological decisions made, it is important to identify the relationship between the technology being introduced and the competitiveness of the company and its behavior. This relationship reveals the following strategic technological factors:

investments in R&D (share of R&D costs in profits, share of costs in sales volume);

positions in competition (leadership in R&D, leadership in products, leadership in technology);

dynamics of new products (life cycle duration, frequency of new products, technological novelty of products);

technology dynamics (life cycle duration, frequency of new technologies, number of competing technologies);

dynamics of competitiveness (technological differences in production, technology as a tool of competition, intensity of competition).

The above strategic technological factors reveal the dependence of the company's market strategy on the characteristics of R&D and the technology used. Success requires such qualities of a new technology as adaptability, flexibility, the ability to be “embedded” in old production, synergy opportunities, a clear R&D strategy and the availability of patents and licenses for the technology, highly qualified personnel, and adequate organizational and management structures. It is impossible to reduce all these concepts to any single indicators, therefore, in a market economy, the market is the arbiter and expert of the quality of technology, and only economic efficiency can be the criterion for the entire variety of properties.

ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS OF NEW TECHNOLOGY - the ratio of the costs of social labor for the production and implementation of new technology and the economic results obtained from its use. The concept of new technology covers new and modernized designs of machines, mechanisms and devices, buildings and structures, raw materials, materials, technological processes that are superior in their technical and economic indicators to existing ones. New technology requires less capital investment for implementation and improvement, and produces a limited-size, but quickly realized, effect. The economic efficiency of new technology is determined by the same methods as the efficiency of capital investments, that is, by comparing the costs of new technology with the effect obtained from its use. There is a difference between the absolute (general) and comparative effectiveness of the butt technique. Absolute - measured by the ratio of the effect obtained from new technology (in the form of an increase in product output and a reduction in its cost or an increase in profit) to the costs of its creation and implementation. Comparative efficiency is used to select the best of the available options for new technology by determining the payback period for the difference in capital investments for the compared options due to savings on current costs or by comparing the reduced costs of the options. The economic efficiency of new technology is calculated over the entire cycle of work on its creation and implementation, including scientific development, design and budgeting, production of a prototype and its testing, production of products and its implementation. Efficiency is determined in relation to the maximum possible scale of implementation under optimal conditions and actually possible volumes over five years and years. In this case, the following is calculated: reduction in costs for the production of new equipment in comparison with old equipment of equivalent power; increase in product output due to the use of new technology; increase in profit for the manufacturer and consumer due to an increase in production volume, reduction in costs and price changes. The transition to the manufacture of new products is associated with additional costs for the manufacturer to develop them, which at first can lead to a reduction in profits or losses. Additional costs for using new technology may also arise for consumers. The planned economic efficiency of new technology is determined by planned data on production volume, cost, and return on capital investments. Actual efficiency may differ from the planned one when the scale of production changes, the prices of materials, or the creation of new production facilities. Actual efficiency is compared with the planned one, as well as with indicators calculated based on the unchanged technical base and production volume.

51. Economic efficiency of production.

Production efficiency is a category that characterizes the impact and effectiveness of production. It does not indicate the rate of growth in production volumes, but rather the cost, the expenditure of resources, that this increase is achieved, that is, it indicates the quality of economic growth.

Production efficiency is one of the main characteristics of human economic activity. It is multidimensional and multi-level.

A distinction is made between the efficiency of the reproduction process as a whole and its individual phases: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. They highlight the efficiency of the entire economy of the country, its individual industries, enterprises, and the efficiency of the economic activity of an individual employee. Taking into account the intensive development of international integration processes, they determine the effectiveness of foreign economic relations and the world economy.

In economic theory and practice, a distinction is made between economic and social efficiency of production

In the most general form, the economic efficiency of social production is defined as the “results - costs” ratio according to the formula

Labor productivity- this is the capacity of labor. At the micro level, it is defined as the ratio of the volume of products produced to the number of workers employed in its production, or to the number of man-hours worked over a certain period of time.

Labor productivity at the macro level, it is defined as the ratio of gross domestic product or net national income to the average number of workers employed in its creation.

Labor intensity- an indicator inverse to labor productivity, which determines the cost of living labor expended on the production of a unit of output.

Capital return- an indicator that characterizes the efficiency of use of fixed capital (implements of labor). It is calculated as the ratio of the cost of manufactured products to the cost of fixed capital.

Capital intensity- the inverse indicator of capital productivity, which fixes the cost of fixed capital expenditure per unit of production.

Material efficiency characterizes the efficiency of using objects of labor, i.e. it shows how much product is produced from the spent material resources (raw materials, materials, fuel, etc.). It is calculated as the ratio of the cost of manufactured products to the cost of consumed material resources.

Material consumption is an inverse indicator of material productivity, which characterizes the cost of material resources spent per unit of production.

Energy intensity characterizes the cost of energy resources per unit of production.

Eco-efficiency. Modern economic science believes that, along with indicators of economic efficiency, it is necessary to determine the efficiency of environmental management by an economic entity using the indicator of environmental and economic efficiency (£) using the following formula:

The indicated indicators of economic efficiency express only individual characteristics of the effectiveness of the economic activity of the enterprise. To determine its effectiveness as a whole, taking into account the simultaneous influence of all factors of production, an integral efficiency indicator is used, which is calculated by the formula

52. Economic analysis of PCDP, methods and main objectives.

Economic analysis of the production and economic activities of an enterprise is carried out on the basis of studying, systematizing and comparing data from accounting, statistical and operational-technical accounting and comparing them with planned indicators.

The scope of production and economic activities of an enterprise includes the processes of production, reproduction and circulation. Production processes ensure the implementation of the tasks of preparing and mastering the release of new products, manufacturing industrial products and performing services, and technical maintenance of production. Work on updating fixed production assets, expansion and technical re-equipment of enterprises, training and retraining of personnel are related to reproduction processes. Distribution processes include logistics and sales of finished products. The enterprise independently plans its production and economic activities and determines development prospects based on the demand for manufactured products, work and services and the need to ensure the production and social development of the enterprise and increase the personal income of its employees. The plans are based on contracts concluded with consumers of products and services and suppliers of material and technical resources.

Comparison– comparison of the data being studied and the facts of economic life. There is a distinction between horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the indicators under study from the base; vertical comparative analysis, used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in studying the relative rates of growth and increase in indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. when studying time series.

A prerequisite for comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, which presupposes: · unity of volume, cost, quality, and structural indicators; · unity of time periods for which comparison is made; · comparability of production conditions; · comparability of the methodology for calculating indicators.

Average values– are calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena. They help determine general patterns and trends in the development of economic processes.

Groups– are used to study dependencies in complex phenomena, the characteristics of which are reflected by homogeneous indicators and different values ​​(characteristics of the equipment fleet by commissioning time, by place of operation, by shift ratio, etc.)

Balance sheet method consists in comparing, measuring two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. It allows us to identify a new analytical (balancing) indicator as a result.

For example, when analyzing an enterprise's supply of raw materials, the need for raw materials, sources of covering the need are compared and a balancing indicator is determined - a shortage or excess of raw materials.

As an auxiliary, the balance sheet method is used to check the results of calculations of the influence of factors on the resulting aggregate indicator. If the sum of the influence of factors on the performance indicator is equal to its deviation from the base value, then, therefore, the calculations were carried out correctly.

The balance method is also used to determine the size of the influence of individual factors on the change in the performance indicator, if the influence of other factors is known: .

Graphic method. Graphs are a large-scale representation of indicators and their relationships using geometric shapes.

The graphical method has no independent significance in the analysis, but is used to illustrate measurements.

Index method is based on relative indicators expressing the ratio of the level of a given phenomenon to its level taken as a basis for comparison. Statistics names several types of indices that are used in analysis: aggregate, arithmetic, harmonic, etc.

By using index recalculations and constructing a time series characterizing, for example, the output of industrial products in value terms, it is possible to skillfully analyze dynamic phenomena.

Method of correlation and regression (stochastic) analysis is widely used to determine the closeness of the relationship between indicators that are not functionally dependent, i.e. the connection is not manifested in each individual case, but in a certain dependence.

With the help of correlation, two main problems are solved: · a model of operating factors is compiled (regression equation); · a quantitative assessment of the closeness of connections is given (correlation coefficient).

Matrix models represent a schematic reflection of an economic phenomenon or process using scientific abstraction. The most widely used method here is the “input-output” analysis, which is built according to a checkerboard pattern and makes it possible to present the relationship between costs and production results in the most compact form.

Mathematical programming– this is the main means of solving problems of optimizing production and economic activities.

Operations Research Method is aimed at studying economic systems, including the production and economic activities of enterprises, in order to determine such a combination of structural interconnected elements of systems that will best determine the best economic indicator from a number of possible ones.

Game theory as a branch of operations research, it is the theory of mathematical models for making optimal decisions under conditions of uncertainty or conflict of several parties with different interests.

The subject of economic analysis determines the tasks facing it. Among the main ones, we highlight: · increasing the scientific and economic validity of business plans, business processes and standards in the process of their development; · objective and comprehensive study of the implementation of business plans, business processes and compliance with regulations; · determination of the efficiency of use of labor and material resources; · control over the implementation of commercial settlement requirements; · identification and measurement of internal reserves at all stages of the production process; · checking the optimality of management decisions.

* This work is not a scientific work, is not a final qualification work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information intended for use as a source of material for independent preparation of educational works.

Introduction

1. The importance of introducing new equipment and technology to improve production efficiency

2. Main directions of introduction of new equipment and technology at the enterprise

3. Economic efficiency of engineering and technology measures

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Objective external global processes, such as: population growth and its increasing needs, the development of science and technology, general expanded reproduction and competition force modern manufacturing enterprises to introduce innovations in all areas of their activities.

The development of the market and market relations, the reduction in production volumes, the increase in the number of insolvent enterprises and organizations have changed the mechanism for managing scientific and technological progress, influenced the pace and nature of research, development and design work, the development and implementation of innovations (innovations) , as the basis for economic growth, increasing the competitiveness of the organization and the economy as a whole.

It is quite obvious that one of the main conditions for the formation of a competitive strategic perspective of an industrial enterprise can be its innovative activity. All over the world, innovation today is not a whim, but a necessity for survival, maintaining competitiveness and further prosperity. That is why the problem of introducing new equipment and technology into an enterprise is relevant and extremely significant today. The relevance of this problem determined the topic of our work. The purpose of our work is to analyze the economic efficiency of introducing new equipment and technology at the enterprise.

1. The importance of introducing new equipment and technology to improve production efficiency.

The introduction of innovation is increasingly seen as the only way to increase the competitiveness of manufactured goods and maintain high rates of development and profitability. Therefore, enterprises, overcoming economic difficulties, began to develop on their own in the field of product and technological innovation. There are many definitions of innovation activity. Thus, according to the Draft Federal Law "On Innovation Activity" dated December 23, 1999, innovation activity is a process aimed at translating the results of scientific research and development or other scientific and technical achievements into a new or improved product sold on the market, into a new or an improved technological process used in a practice.

ON THE. Safronov gives the following concept of innovation activity: innovation activity is a system of measures to use scientific, technological and intellectual potential in order to obtain a new or improved product or service, a new method of their production to satisfy both individual demand and the needs of society for innovations as a whole. .

The relevance of technological developments is due to two groups of changes in the operating environment of an enterprise, having a domestic and international nature. In other words, enterprises are under pressure from the external and internal markets. This pressure is reflected in changes in consumer behavior; development of markets for goods and services and, as a result, increased competition; global development of new diverse technologies; globalization of supply and demand.

Before talking about the importance of innovations for increasing production efficiency, it is necessary to define the concept of innovation, identify the types of innovations, and also describe the main forms of organization of the innovation process.

Innovation (innovation) is a new way to satisfy needs, giving an increase in beneficial effect as a result of the development and mastery of production of new or improved products, technologies and processes.

It is customary to distinguish the following types of innovation:

Technological innovation is the activity of an enterprise related to the development and mastery of new technological processes.

Product innovation involves the development and introduction of new or improved products.

Process innovation involves the development and mastery of new or significantly improved production methods, including the use of new, more modern production equipment, new methods of organizing the production process, or a combination of them.

In foreign and Russian practice, there are three basic forms of organizing the innovation process: administrative and economic, program-targeted and initiative. The administrative and economic form presupposes the presence of a research and production center - a large or medium-sized corporation that combines research and development, production and sales of new products. The program-targeted form provides for the work of program participants in their organizations and the coordination of their activities from the program management center. The initiative form consists of financing the activities and administrative assistance to individual inventors, initiative groups, as well as small firms created to develop and master innovations.

The main forms of organizing innovation activity at present are:

Scientific centers and laboratories as part of corporate structures;

Temporary creative scientific teams or centers that are created to solve certain major and original scientific and technical problems;

State scientific centers;

Various forms of technology park structures: science parks, technology and research parks, innovation, innovation-technological and business innovation centers, business incubators, technopolises.

It should also be noted that innovative activities can be carried out by specialized research organizations as the main activity and represent the development of new products for sale on the market of innovative technologies. At the same time, a wide range of enterprises are developing new technologies as an auxiliary direction for their use in the production of products.

The set of interconnected processes and stages of innovation creation represent the innovation life cycle, which is defined as the period of time from the origin of an idea to the discontinuation of an innovative product based on it. In its life cycle, innovation goes through a number of stages, namely:

Origin, accompanied by the completion of the required volume of research and development work, the development and creation of a pilot batch of innovation;

Growth (industrial development with simultaneous entry of the product into the market);

Maturity (stage of serial or mass production and increasing sales volume);

Market saturation (maximum production volume and maximum sales volume);

Decline (curtailment of production and withdrawal of the product from the market).

The composition and structure of the life cycles of new equipment and technology are closely related to the parameters of production development. So, for example, at the first stage of the life cycle of new equipment and technology, labor productivity is low, production costs decrease slowly, enterprise profits slowly increase, or economic profits are even negative. During a period of rapid growth in product output, production costs are noticeably reduced and initial costs are recouped. Frequent changes in equipment and technology create great complexity and instability in production. During the period of transition to new equipment and the development of new technological processes, the efficiency indicators of all departments of the enterprise decrease. That is why innovations in the field of technological processes and tools must be accompanied by new forms of organization and management, operational and detailed calculation of economic efficiency.

ON THE. Safronov identifies factors that determine the significance of innovation activity:

The need to adapt the enterprise to new economic conditions;

Changes in tax, monetary and financial policies;

Improvement and dynamics of sales markets and consumer preferences, i.e. demand pressure;

Activation of competitors;

Market fluctuations;

Structural industry changes;

The emergence of new cheap resources, the expansion of the market for production factors, i.e. supply pressure;

The desire to increase sales volumes;

Expanding market share, moving to new markets;

Improving the competitiveness of the company;

Economic security and financial stability of the enterprise;

Maximizing profits in the long term.

The process of diffusion of innovations is called technology diffusion. The rate of diffusion depends mainly on the efficiency of technological innovation. Moreover, the greater the number of enterprises that used this innovation, the higher the losses of those enterprises that did not use it. Moreover, the sooner an enterprise begins to carry out innovative activities, the faster (and cheaper) it will be able to catch up with the leaders.

This implies the need to identify the conditions under which it is useful for enterprises to develop new products. Such criteria are: the threat of obsolescence of existing products; the emergence of new needs among customers; changing consumer tastes and preferences; shortening the product life cycle; tougher competition. Among the internal factors that increase the efficiency of innovation are:

The ability of management and staff to identify and evaluate economic, social and technological changes in the external environment;

Management is focused on the long term and has clear strategic goals;

Developed sales and marketing system capable of researching and assessing market trends;

Carrying out a continuous search for new market offers; ability to analyze and implement new ideas.

2. The main directions of introducing new equipment and technology at the enterprise.

In conditions of fierce competition, not a single enterprise can exist for long without making noticeable improvements in its work. As a result of the introduction of new equipment and technology into the activities of the enterprise, the quality of products improves and the characteristics of products progress, as well as the means, methods and organization of production are improved. The introduction of innovations is carried out, as a rule, in the following areas:

Development of new and modernization of manufactured products;

Introduction of new technologies, machines, equipment, tools and materials into production;

Use of new information technologies and new methods of production;

Improvement and application of new progressive methods, means and rules for organizing and managing production.

The tasks of comprehensive improvement of technology and production organization are directly linked to the needs of the market. First of all, the products that the enterprise should develop, its potential consumers and competitors are determined. These issues are resolved by engineers, marketers and economists who develop an enterprise development strategy and its technical policy. Based on this policy, the direction of technical development of production and the market sector in which the enterprise intends to gain a foothold are determined.

The innovative activities of the enterprise in the development, implementation, and development of innovations include:

Carrying out research and development work to develop an innovation idea, conduct laboratory research, produce laboratory samples of new products, types of new equipment, new designs and products;

Selection of the necessary types of raw materials and supplies for the manufacture of new types of products;

Development of a technological process for manufacturing new products;

Design, manufacture, testing and development of samples of new equipment necessary for the manufacture of products;

Development and implementation of new organizational and management solutions aimed at implementing innovations;

Research, development or acquisition of necessary information resources and information support for innovation;

Preparation, training, retraining and special methods of personnel selection;

Carrying out work or acquiring the necessary documentation for licensing, patenting, acquiring know-how;

Organizing and conducting marketing research to promote innovation, etc.

The set of managerial, technological and economic methods that ensure the development, creation and implementation of innovations represents the innovation policy of the enterprise. The purpose of such a policy is to provide the enterprise with significant advantages over competing firms and ultimately increase the profitability of production and sales.

To carry out innovative activities, it is necessary to have the innovative potential of the enterprise, which is characterized as a combination of various resources, including:

Intellectual (technological documentation, patents, licenses, business plans for the development of innovations, innovation program of the enterprise);

Material (experimental instrument base, technological equipment, space resources);

Financial (own, borrowed, investment, federal, grant);

Personnel (innovative leader; personnel interested in innovation; partnerships and personal connections of employees with research institutes and universities; experience in carrying out innovation procedures; experience in project management);

Infrastructure (own divisions, chief technologist department, new product marketing department, patent and legal department, information department, competitive intelligence department);

Other resources necessary for carrying out innovative activities.

The choice of one strategy or another depends on the state of innovation potential, which in this case can be defined as a measure of readiness to fulfill the set goals in the field of innovative development of the enterprise. Practice shows that not all enterprises need to master new technologies, despite the constant increase in the importance of innovation. Some types and forms of economic activity, say small pharmaceutical enterprises, are unable to independently develop new drugs. And for enterprises that are in complete decline or at the stage of bankruptcy, it simply does not make sense to modernize production.

Innovations in the field of material production are closely related to investment. The development and production of new products, the use of new equipment and technology become realistic only if they can be financed. Financial resources intended for investment are conditionally divided at enterprises in the following areas:

Development and release of new products (in this case, progressive changes are almost always made to the technology and organization of production, which ensures the comprehensive and rapid introduction of advanced scientific achievements into production);

Technical re-equipment (a form of updating the production apparatus, when old production equipment and technology are permanently replaced with new ones, with higher technical and economic indicators);

Expansion of production (involves the construction of new additional workshops and other divisions of the main production, as well as new auxiliary and service workshops and areas);

Reconstruction (events related to both the replacement of obsolete and physically worn out machinery and equipment, and the improvement and reconstruction of buildings and structures);

New construction (only advisable to accelerate the development of the most promising and developing products and industries, as well as to master fundamentally new equipment and technology that does not fit into traditional production structures).

When introducing new products or new technology, businesses are exposed to high risk. The level of risk varies significantly and is directly related to the degree of novelty of the product or technology. It is no secret that the higher the novelty, the higher the uncertainty of how the product will be perceived by the market. There are various approaches to classifying and identifying various uncertainties that affect the efficiency of the innovation process, including: scientific, technical, marketing, financial, legal, environmental and other risks. The main failures in introducing new products to the market are considered to be:

Insufficient analysis of external factors in the operating environment of the enterprise, prospects for market development and the behavior of competitors;

Insufficient analysis of internal innovation, production, financial and other capabilities;

Ineffective marketing and insufficient (or unprofessional) support for a new product when introducing it to the market.

When considering the generally recognized shortcomings of introducing innovation to the market, we can conclude that the success of innovative technologies may largely depend on the management system used at the enterprise in general and innovative technologies in particular.

The need for an integrated approach to the creation and implementation of new equipment, technology and production organization makes significant amendments to the conceptual apparatus and production management system. When using new engineering solutions, production is forced to rely on scientific developments in the field of economics, sociology, mathematics, biology and other sciences. Thus, the concept of “introduction of new technology” expanded and became an integral part of the concept of “scientific and technological progress”, which characterizes the development of science and technology and their practical application to solve set socio-economic and political problems.

3. Economic efficiency of engineering and technology measures.

The quality of a technological process is realized in its ability to create innovation. It is assessed both from the standpoint of technical and technological characteristics and a system of economic indicators.

In order for the introduction of new equipment and technology to be effective, such qualities as adaptability, flexibility, the ability to be “embedded” in old production, opportunities for synergy, a clear strategy, the availability of patents and licenses for technology, highly qualified personnel, adequate organizational and managerial structures. All these concepts cannot be reduced to any single indicator, therefore the quality of technology is determined directly by the market, and the criterion for the entire variety of properties is economic efficiency.

When designing, developing and implementing new equipment and technology, the procedure for determining the economic efficiency of these activities consists of four stages. The first stage is to determine the necessary costs for the implementation of innovative activities; second - identifying possible sources of financing; third - assessment of the economic effect from the introduction of new equipment and technology; fourth - assessing the comparative effectiveness of innovation by comparing economic indicators. Thus, economic efficiency is characterized by the ratio of the economic effect obtained during the year and the costs of implementing this activity.

Widely used technical-economic and functional-cost analysis methods make it possible to establish the relationship between technical and economic indicators of processes and find an algorithm for the optimal functioning of production systems. It is impossible to solve the problem of quality and economic efficiency of new equipment and technology separately. It is most advisable to apply a generalized technical and economic model that reveals the impact of technical level indicators on general technical and economic indicators: cost, productivity, reduced costs, etc. To do this, it is necessary at the very beginning of designing an innovation to choose an alternative option: 1) optimal properties of the innovation with maximum economic efficiency or 2) the most perfect level of innovation with satisfactory economic efficiency.

The effectiveness of any innovative project is assessed on the basis of the "Methodological recommendations for assessing the effectiveness of innovative projects and their selection for financing", approved by the State Construction Committee, the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Finance and the State Committee for Industry of the Russian Federation on March 31, 1994. The following main indicators of the effectiveness of an innovative project have been established:

Financial (commercial) efficiency, taking into account the financial implications for budgets of all levels;

Budget efficiency, taking into account the financial consequences of the project for its direct participants;

National economic economic efficiency, which takes into account costs and results that go beyond the direct financial interests of project participants and allow for monetary expression. For large-scale projects (significantly affecting the interests of a region or country) it is recommended to evaluate the economic efficiency.

The effectiveness of introducing new equipment and technology at an enterprise is determined by assessing the conditions for the success of the enterprise's innovative activities in comparison with past experience and previously established trends. Analysis of the effectiveness of new equipment and technology requires research not only of novelty and priority, but also of such important properties as the ability to adapt to existing conditions, the ability to re-adjust the production apparatus. Particular attention should be paid to such a property of technology, technology and organization as flexibility.

An increase in the technical and organizational level of production ultimately manifests itself in the level of use of the main elements of the production process: labor, means of labor and objects of labor. That is why such economic indicators as labor productivity, capital productivity, material intensity, working capital turnover, reflecting the intensity of use of production resources, are indicators of the economic efficiency of increasing the level of new equipment and technology used.

Among the indicators of increasing the economic efficiency of technical and organizational development activities, the following can be highlighted:

Increase in labor productivity, relative deviation in the number of employees and wage fund;

Increase in material productivity (reduction in material intensity), relative deviation in the costs of material resources;

Increase in capital productivity (decrease in capital intensity) of fixed assets, relative deviation of fixed assets;

Increment of the turnover rate of working capital, relative deviation (release or binding) of working capital;

Increase in production volume due to intensified use of labor, material and financial resources;

Increase in profit or cost of production;

Increase in indicators of the financial condition and solvency of the enterprise.

The proposed system of indicators of the economic efficiency of new technology is the same for all sectors of material production.

Conclusion

It is quite obvious that in modern conditions of the formation of market relations, revolutionary qualitative changes are necessary, a transition to fundamentally new technologies, to technology of subsequent generations.

In the conditions of modern competition, the shortening of the life cycle of goods and services, the development of new diverse technologies, one of the main conditions for the formation of a competitive strategic perspective of an industrial enterprise is increasingly becoming its innovative activity.

Enterprises that form strategic behavior based on an innovative approach, the main goal of the strategic plan is the development of new technologies, the release of new goods and services, have the opportunity to gain leadership positions in the market, maintain high rates of development, reduce costs, and achieve high profit margins.

An analysis of the strategic behavior of an innovative product on the market shows that industrial enterprises need to constantly monitor the development of science and technology in order to introduce the latest achievements in these areas into the production process and timely abandon the used outdated products and their production technology. Sources of information about the environment may include industry conferences, specialized newspapers and magazines, the scientific information network, professional meetings, business reports, personal experience and other channels.

Bibliography

1. Volkov. O.I., Sklyarenko V.K. Enterprise economics: Course of lectures - M.: INFRA - M, 2005 - 280

2. Draft Federal Law of the Russian Federation<Об инновационной деятельности и государственной инновационной политике в Российской Федерации>//Innovation. - 1998. - No. 2-3.

3. Sklyarenko V.K., Prudnikov V.M. Enterprise Economics: Textbook. - M.: INFRA - M, 2005 - 528

4. Economics of organizations (enterprises): Textbook for universities/Ed. prof. V.Ya. Gorfinkel, prof. V.A. Shvandara - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. - 608 p.

5. Economics of an enterprise (firm): Textbook/Ed. prof. O.I. Volkova and Assoc. O.V. Devyatkina - M.: INFRA - M, 2003. - 601 p.

Introduction......... ............................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1. Innovation activities …………………………………………………………………………………5

1.1 Innovations, their economic essence and significance………………………………………………………5

1.2 Classification of innovations………………………………………………………………………………….8

1.3 The role of innovation in the development of an enterprise…………………………………………………………………………………15

Chapter 2. Efficiency indicators of new equipment and technology………………………………….17

2.1 Innovation as an object of enterprise activity……………………………………...17

2.2 Management, planning and organization of innovative activities………….….18

2.3 Assessing the effectiveness of an innovative project…………………………………………………………………………………22

Chapter 3. nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…24

3.1 History of nanotechnology development …………………………………………………….…24

3.2 achievements of nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………………………………..27

3.3. prospects for nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32

4. Conclusion (Conclusion)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………......34

References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……35

Introduction.

Possible ways to create a favorable innovation climate in the Russian economy began actively in the early 80s, even before the collapse of the Soviet Union. Even then, it became obvious that the existing mechanisms for “implementing” the results of research and development were ineffective, the innovative activity of enterprises was low, and the average age of production equipment was constantly increasing, reaching 10.8 years by 1990.

Since then, a number of state Concepts for regulating and stimulating innovation activity have been adopted, the creation of a national innovation system has been announced, and a number of mechanisms for state financing of innovation have been created, including the creation of an infrastructure for innovation activity. The main problem still remains the broken connections between the main participants in the innovation process (developers and consumers of innovations), information opacity and, therefore, low motivation both for the development and financing of innovations.

In official statistics, technological innovation is understood as the final results of innovative activity, embodied in the form of a new or improved product or service introduced on the market, a new or improved technological process or a method of production (transfer) of services used in practical activities. All formalized characteristics of this process depend on which definition of innovation is used. At present, there is no single approach to defining innovation activity, just as there have been no comprehensive surveys of enterprises and organizations in which innovation was studied. Existing assessments of innovation activity are based on sample surveys of greater or lesser breadth, and this explains the frequent contradiction in their results.

An innovative enterprise is one that introduces product or process innovations, regardless of who was the author of the innovation - employees of this organization or external agents (external owners, banks, representatives of federal and local authorities, research organizations and technology providers, other enterprises ).

Thus, the purpose of this work is to provide insight into the innovative activities of enterprises and their application in practice. And the main tasks are to understand the essence of innovation, identify types of innovation, and also consider the impact of innovation activity on the development of an enterprise.

The object of this work is the enterprise as an economic entity, and the subject is innovation activity.

When studying the innovative activities of the enterprise, comparative analysis and data collection methods were used.

Chapter 1. Innovation activities

1.1 Innovations, their economic essence and significance.

It is necessary to distinguish between the terms “innovation” and “innovation”. Innovation is a broader concept than innovation.

Innovation is an evolving, complex process of creating, disseminating and using a new idea that helps improve the efficiency of an enterprise. Moreover, innovation is not just an object introduced into production, but an object that has been successfully introduced and brings profit as a result of scientific research or a discovery made, which is qualitatively different from its previous analogue.

Scientific and technical innovation must be considered as a process of transforming scientific knowledge into a scientific and technical idea and then into the production of products to satisfy the needs of the user. In this context, two approaches to scientific and technological innovation can be distinguished.

The first approach mainly reflects the product orientation of the innovation. Innovation is defined as the process of transformation for the sake of producing finished products. This direction is spreading at a time when the position of the consumer in relation to the manufacturer is quite weak. However, products themselves are not the final goal, but only a means of satisfying needs. Therefore, according to the second approach, the process

scientific and technical innovation is considered as the transfer of scientific or technical knowledge directly to the sphere of satisfying consumer needs. In this case, the product turns into a carrier of technology, and the form it takes is determined after linking the technology and the need being satisfied.

Thus, innovation, firstly, must have a market structure to satisfy consumer needs. Secondly, any innovation is always considered as a complex process, involving changes of both a scientific and technical, and economic, social and structural nature. Thirdly, in innovation the emphasis is on the rapid implementation of an innovation into practical use. Fourth, innovation must provide economic, social, technical or environmental benefits.

The innovation process is the process of transforming scientific knowledge into innovation, which can be represented as a sequential chain of events during which innovation matures from an idea to a specific product, technology or service and spreads through practical use. The innovation process is aimed at creating the required markets for products, technologies or services and is carried out in close unity with the environment: its direction, pace, goals depend on the socio-economic environment in which it operates and develops. Therefore, only on the innovative path of development is economic growth possible.

Innovation activity is an activity aimed at using and commercializing the results of scientific research and development to expand and update the range and improve the quality of products, improve the technology of their manufacture, followed by implementation and effective sales in the domestic and foreign markets.

Innovation can be viewed as:

Process;

System;

Change;

Result.

Innovation has a clear focus on the final result of an applied nature; it should always be considered as a complex process that provides a certain technical and socio-economic effect.

Innovation in its development (life cycle) changes forms, moving from idea to implementation. The course of the innovation process, like any other, is determined by the complex interaction of many factors. The use of one or another form of organization of innovation processes in business practice is determined by three factors:

State of the external environment (political and economic situation, type of market, nature of competition, practice of state-monopoly regulation, etc.);

The state of the internal environment of a given economic system (presence of a leader-entrepreneur and a support team, financial and material and technical resources, technologies used, size, existing organizational structure, internal culture of the organization, connections with the external environment, etc.);

Specifics of the innovation process itself as an object of management.

Innovation processes are considered as processes that permeate all scientific, technical, production, and marketing activities of manufacturers and, ultimately, focused on meeting market needs. The most important condition for the success of innovation is the presence of an innovator-enthusiast, captured by a new idea and ready to make every effort to bring it to life, and a leader-entrepreneur who found investments, organized production, promoted a new product to the market, took the main risk and implemented your commercial interest.

Innovations form the market for innovations, investments form the capital market, innovations form the market for competition of innovations. The innovation process ensures the implementation of scientific and technical results and intellectual potential to obtain new or improved products (services) and the maximum increase in added value.

1.2 Classification of innovations.

To obtain higher returns from innovation activities, innovations are classified. The need for classification, i.e. dividing the entire set of innovations according to certain criteria into appropriate groups is explained by the fact that the choice of an object of innovation is a very important procedure, since it predetermines all subsequent innovation activities, the result of which will be an increase in production efficiency, an expansion of the range of high-tech products and an increase in their volumes.

Classification of innovations into appropriate groups is carried out using the following characteristics.

Based on the emergence of innovations, two groups are distinguished: protective and strategic.

The protection group of innovations ensures the necessary level of competitiveness of production and products based on the introduction of relevant innovations as a way of protection from competitors.

Strategic forms long-term competitive advantages.

According to the subject and area of ​​application of innovations, innovations are divided into product (new products and materials), market (new areas of use of goods, the possibility of implementing innovations in new markets), process (technologies, new methods of organizing and managing production).

According to the degree of novelty of innovations, they are distinguished:

Non-standard groups of innovations, including a new product produced on the basis of a first-developed technical solution that has no analogues;

Improving - new products or technological processes developed based on the use of achievements of the scientific and technical process and providing perfect technical and operational characteristics in comparison with existing analogues;

modification - innovations that expand the operational capabilities of a product or technological process.

By the nature of meeting needs, innovation groups are determined by innovations that satisfy new needs that have developed in the market.

In terms of the scale of distribution, innovations can be basic for young industries producing a homogeneous product, or used in all sectors of industrial production.

Despite the generality of the subject of innovation, each implementation is very individual and even unique. At the same time, there are many classifications of innovations and, accordingly, subjects of innovative entrepreneurship. Let's look at some of them.

G. Mensch identified three large groups of innovations: basic, improving and pseudo-innovations. Basic innovations, in turn, are divided into technological (forming new industries and new markets) and non-technological (changes in culture, management, public services). The movement from one technological stalemate to another occurs, according to Mensch, through the transition from basic innovations to improving ones and then to pseudo-innovations.

A detailed and original typology of innovations was given by A.I. Prigogine. He classified innovations depending on the type of innovation (material, technical and social innovations), the mechanism of implementation, and the characteristics of the innovation process. A.I. Prigozhin introduced into scientific circulation replacing, canceling, opening innovations, retro-innovations, single, diffuse, intra-organizational, inter-organizational, etc. He divided the concepts of “innovation” and “novelty”. Innovation, according to A.I. Prigogine, is the subject of innovation; novelty and innovation have different life cycles; innovation is development, design, production, use, obsolescence. Innovation is origin, diffusion, routinization (the stage when innovation is “implemented in stable, constantly functioning elements of the corresponding objects”).

The largest (basic) innovations implement the largest inventions and become the basis for revolutionary revolutions in technology, the formation of new directions, and the creation of new industries. Such innovations require a long time and large expenses for their development, but they provide a significant level and scale of national economic effect, but they do not occur every year;

Major innovations (based on inventions of a similar rank) form new generations of technology within this area. They are implemented in a shorter time and at lower costs than the largest (basic) innovations, but the leap in technical level and efficiency is comparatively smaller;

Medium innovations implement inventions of the same level and serve as the basis for the creation of new models and modifications of a given generation of equipment, replacing outdated models with more efficient ones or expanding the scope of application of this generation;

Minor innovations - improve individual production or consumer parameters of manufactured models of equipment based on the use of minor inventions, which contributes to either more efficient production of these models or increased efficiency of their use.

M. Walker identifies seven types of innovations depending on the degree of use of scientific knowledge and widespread application:

1) based on the use of fundamental scientific knowledge and widely used in various spheres of social activity (for example, computers, etc.);

2) also using scientific research, but having a limited scope (for example, measuring instruments for chemical production);

3) innovations developed using existing technical knowledge with a limited scope (for example, a new type of mixer for bulk materials);

4) included in combinations of different types of knowledge in one product;

5) using one product in different areas;

6) technically complex innovations that emerged as a by-product of a major research program (for example, a ceramic saucepan created based on research conducted as part of the space program);

7) using already known techniques or methods in a new area.

A generalized classification of innovations by characteristics is given in Table. 1.1.

Table 1.1.

Generalized classification of innovations by characteristics.

Of course, this classification is not exhaustive, but it should be noted that various types of innovation are closely interrelated.

The classification provides specialists with a basis for identifying the maximum number of ways to implement innovations, thereby creating a variety of solutions.

1.3 The role of innovation in enterprise development .

The innovative activity of the enterprise is aimed, first of all, at increasing the competitiveness of its products (services).

Competitiveness - This is a characteristic of a product (service), reflecting its difference from a competing product both in terms of the degree of compliance with a specific need and in terms of the costs of satisfying it. Two elements - consumer properties and price - are the main components of the competitiveness of a product (service). However, the market prospects for goods are not only related to quality and production costs. The reason for the success or failure of a product may also be other (non-commodity) factors, such as advertising activities, the prestige of the company, the level of service offered.

At the same time, top-level service creates great attractiveness. Based on this, the competitiveness formula can be presented as follows:

Competitiveness = Quality + Price + Service.

Manage competitiveness - means ensuring the optimal balance of the named components, directing the main efforts to solving the following problems: improving product quality, reducing production costs, increasing efficiency and level of service.

Essentially, the basis of the modern "philosophy of success" is to subordinate the interests of the company to the goals of developing, producing and marketing competitive products. The focus is on long-term success and the consumer. Company managers consider issues of profitability from the standpoint of quality, consumer properties, products, and competitiveness.

To analyze the position of a product on the market, assess its sales prospects, and select a sales strategy, the concept of the “product life cycle” is used.

Simultaneous discounting of goods at different stages of the life cycle is only possible for large companies. Small firms are forced to follow the path of specialization, i.e. choose one of the following “roles”:

* an innovative company dealing primarily with innovation issues;

* engineering: a company that develops original product modifications and electronic design;

* a highly specialized manufacturer - most often a subsupplier of relatively simple mass-produced products;

* manufacturer of traditional high quality products (services).

Experience shows that small firms are especially active in the production of goods that go through the stages of market formation and exit from it. The fact is that a large company is usually reluctant to be the first to produce fundamentally new products. The consequences of a possible failure are much more severe for her than for a small newly formed company.

Ensuring the competitiveness of a product requires an innovative, entrepreneurial approach, the essence of which is the search and implementation of innovations.

In this regard, it is interesting to note that one of the classics of economic theory, A. Marshall, considered entrepreneurship to be the fundamental property, the main feature of a market economy.

The main prerequisite for an innovation strategy is the obsolescence of manufactured products and technology. In this regard, every three years, enterprises should conduct certification of manufactured products, technologies, equipment and workplaces, analyze the market and distribution channels of goods. In other words, it should be carried out business x-ray.

Chapter 2. Efficiency indicators of new equipment and technology.

2.1 Innovation as an object of enterprise activity

In the process of innovative activity, an enterprise can function with the greatest efficiency only by clearly focusing on a specific object and guided by maximum consideration of the impacts of external and internal environmental factors. This requires a detailed classification of innovations, their properties and possible sources of financing. This classification of innovations as objects of enterprise activity is shown in Fig. 1. The most characteristic indicators of innovation are indicators such as absolute and relative novelty, priority and progressiveness, level of unification and standardization, competitiveness, adaptability to new economic conditions, ability to modernize, as well as indicators of economic efficiency, environmental safety, etc. All these indicators of innovation are essentially the embodiment of indicators of the technical and organizational level of innovation and its competitiveness. Their significance is determined by the degree of influence of these factors on the final results of the enterprise: the cost and profitability of products, their quality, sales and profits in the short and long term, the level of profitability of business activities. Indicators of the technical level of innovation determine the technical level of production as a whole. According to the degree of novelty, innovations are divided into fundamentally new ones, which have no analogues in the past in domestic and foreign practice, and innovations of relative novelty. For fundamentally new types of products, technologies and services, the indicator of their patent and licensing purity and protection is especially important, because they are not only intellectual products of the first kind, i.e. have priority, absolute novelty, but are also an original model, on the basis of which innovations-imitations, copies or intellectual products of the second kind are obtained by replication. An intellectual product is protected by property rights, which is why an enterprise needs patents, licenses, inventions and know-how to develop innovative activities. Among imitation innovations, a distinction is made between equipment, technology and products of market novelty, a new scope of application and innovations of comparative novelty (which have analogues in the best foreign and domestic enterprises) and innovations - improvements. In turn, innovations-improvements according to their subject-content structure are divided into displacing, replacing, complementing, improving, etc.

2.2 Management, planning and organization of innovation activities

Successful research stimulates an increase in funding, leading to the complete impossibility of further research.

Innovation management can be considered in three main aspects:

1. R&D management (the object of management is research and development itself).

2. Management of innovative projects (object of management - innovative projects).

3. Management of external conditions affecting the effectiveness of innovation activities.

An innovation project covers the life cycle of an innovation from the moment the idea arises to the moment the product is discontinued or the technological process is used. Such a project includes: R&D, development of product production and trial sales, deployment of mass or serial production and sales of the product, maintenance of production and sales, modernization and updating of the product, termination of its production.

An innovative project is essentially an investment project, the implementation of which requires the long-term commitment of basic material and financial resources. However, compared to a “classical” investment project, the implementation of an innovative one is different.

1. Relatively less reliability of the preliminary economic assessment due to the high degree of uncertainty of the project parameters (time frame for achieving the intended goals, upcoming costs, future income), which necessitates the use of additional evaluation and selection criteria.

2. Participation of highly qualified specialists and the use of unique resources, which, in turn, requires careful development of individual stages of the entire project.

4. The possibility of terminating an innovative project without physically tying up investments and, consequently, significant financial losses.

5. The likelihood of obtaining by-products of potential commercial value, which, in turn, requires flexibility in project management, the ability to quickly enter new business sectors, markets, etc.

The list of tasks solved in the process of innovation management is extremely wide. In relation to product innovation, it includes:

* market research;

* forecast of the duration, nature and stages of the life cycle of a new product;

* study of resource market conditions.

Innovative marketing is a complex of marketing research and activities aimed at the commercially successful implementation of products, technologies, and services developed by the company.

Marketing in the innovation sector has the following features:

* intersectoral nature of the result of innovation activity (i.e. the possibility of implementing innovations in various fields and areas of activity);

* orientation towards an experienced, sophisticated, often collective buyer;

* mandatory after-sales service (related to the technological complexity of high-tech products);

* taking into account the scientific and technical levels of the possible consumer, since many engineering innovations do not find a buyer due to the technological backwardness of the consumer.

Naturally, in the process of marketing research, the preliminary effectiveness of innovations is determined, which means, first of all, economic efficiency, i.e. the ratio of costs and results of implementing a particular innovative project. Since profit is the main criterion for the activity of any enterprise, it is the indicators related to it that should be decisive in the assessment and selection of a project.

The effectiveness of innovation is assessed based on the following indicators:

* cost of the project taking into account the sources of its financing:

* net present value;

* level of return on capital;

* internal rate of return;

* payback period of investments.

Innovative projects that go beyond traditional business areas are difficult to evaluate from the point of view of the effectiveness of investments, since they are associated with uncertainty. The problem is whether it will be possible to reduce project uncertainty to risk categories, since risk can be subject to a certain law of probability distribution and therefore, in principle, be manageable.

Any risk can be quantitatively characterized by the probability of an undesirable outcome.

Each enterprise, regardless of its form of ownership and size characteristics, develops an innovation strategy. The main elements of the enterprise's innovation strategy include:

Improvement of already produced products and applied technologies;

Creation and development of new products and processes;

Increasing the quality level of the technical, technological, research and development base of the enterprise;

Increasing the efficiency of using the personnel and information potential of the enterprise;

Improving the organization and management of innovative activities;

Rationalization of the resource base;

Ensuring environmental and technological safety;

Achieving competitive advantages of an innovative product in comparison with products of similar purposes in the domestic and foreign markets.

When developing an innovation strategy, it is necessary to solve the following main problems:

Determining the type of innovation strategy that best suits the goals and market positions of the enterprise;

Ensuring compliance of the innovation strategy with the organizational structure, infrastructure and information management system of the enterprise;

Determination of success criteria at the earliest possible stages of development of an innovative project;

Selection of the optimal procedure for monitoring and controlling the progress of the project.

2.3 Assessing the effectiveness of an innovative project

In a market economy, when developing and implementing innovations, the most common approach is not the normative one, but the project approach.

The basis of the project approach to the activities of an enterprise, including its innovation and investment activities, is the principle of cash flows (cash how). At the same time, the commercial efficiency of activities both for the project and for the enterprise; determined on the basis of the “Methodological recommendations for assessing the effectiveness of investment projects and their selection for financing” approved by the State Construction Committee, the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Finance and the State Committee for Industry of the Russian Federation.

The following main indicators of the effectiveness of the innovation project have been established:

* financial (commercial) efficiency, taking into account the financial consequences for project participants;

* budget efficiency, taking into account the financial consequences for budgets of all levels;

* national economic economic efficiency, which takes into account costs and results that go beyond the direct financial interests of project participants and allow for monetary expression.

Methods for assessing project effectiveness

The basis for assessing the effectiveness of the project is a comparative analysis of the volume of proposed investments and future cash flows. The compared values ​​refer in most cases to different time periods. Therefore the most important thing; the problem in this case, as well as when determining the economic efficiency of new equipment and technology, is the problem of comparing income and costs and bringing them into a comparable form. The reason for the need to carry out the discounting process (i.e., bringing it into a comparable form) may be inflation, undesirable investment dynamics, a drop in industrial production, different forecasting horizons, changes in the tax system, etc.

Methods for assessing project effectiveness are divided into groups based on:

a) on discounted valuations;

b) on accounting estimates.

Thus, methods for assessing the effectiveness of a project based on accounting estimates (without discounting) are the payback period (Pay Back Period - PP), the investment efficiency ratio (Average Rate of Return - ARR) and the debt coverage ratio (Debt Cover Ratio - DCR ).

Methods for assessing the effectiveness of a project based on discounted valuations are much more accurate, since they take into account various types of inflation, changes in interest rates, rates of return, etc. These indicators include: the profitability index method (Profitability Index - Рл, net value, otherwise called “net present value” (Net Present Ua1ue) and internal rate of return (Internal Rate of Return - IRR).

Traditional methods of project evaluation are widely used in financial practice.

The return on investment method is very common. But its significant drawback is that it ignores the future value of money taking into account the income of a future period and, as a result, the inapplicability of discounting. In conditions of inflation, sharp fluctuations in interest rates and a low rate of internal savings of an enterprise in the real Russian economy, this method is not accurate enough.

However, you should pay attention to the methodology for calculating the investment efficiency ratio, understood as the average profitability indicator for the entire period of the project.

This ratio is calculated by dividing the average annual profit by the average annual investment. Of course, this indicator is compared with the return on advanced capital ratio (the result of the average net balance).

However, all three traditional accounting measures do not take into account the time component of cash flows. They do not fit in with factor analysis and the dynamics of cash flows in economic reality. Therefore, the project can be most fully assessed using methods based on discounted valuations.

Chapter 3. Nanotechnology

3.1 History of the development of nanotechnology.

1905 Swiss physicist Albert Einstein published a paper in which he proved that the size of a sugar molecule is approximately 1 nanometer.

1931 German physicists Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska created an electron microscope, which for the first time made it possible to study nanoobjects.

1959 American physicist Richard Feynman gave his first lecture at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society, which was called “Full of toys on the floor of the room.” He drew attention to the problems of miniaturization, which at that time was relevant in physical electronics, mechanical engineering, and computer science. This work is considered by some to be fundamental in nanotechnology, but some points in this lecture contradict physical laws.

1968 Alfred Cho and John Arthur, employees of the scientific division of the American company Bell, developed the theoretical foundations of nanotechnology in surface treatment.

1974 Japanese physicist Norio Taniguchi introduced the word “nanotechnology” into scientific circulation at an international conference on industrial production in Tokyo. Taniguchi used this word to describe the ultra-fine processing of materials with nanometer precision, and proposed to call it mechanisms that are less than one micron in size. At the same time, not only mechanical, but also ultrasonic treatment, as well as beams of various types (electronic, ion, etc.) were considered.

1982 German physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer created a special microscope to study objects in the nanoworld. It was given the designation SPM (Scanning Probe Microscope). This discovery was of great importance for the development of nanotechnology, as it was the first microscope capable of viewing individual atoms (SPM).

1985 American physicists Robert Curl, Harold Kroteau and Richard Smaily have created technology that makes it possible to accurately measure objects with a diameter of one nanometer.

1986 Nanotechnology became known to the general public. American futurist Erk Drexler, a pioneer of molecular nanotechnology, published the book “Engines of Creation”, in which he predicted that nanotechnology would soon begin to actively develop, postulated the possibility of using nano-sized molecules for the synthesis of large molecules, but at the same time deeply reflected all the technical problems facing now before nanotechnology. Reading this work is essential for a clear understanding of what nanomachines can do, how they will work, and how to build them.

1989 Donald Eigler, an IBM employee, laid out the name of his company in xenon atoms.

1998 Dutch physicist Seez Dekker created a transistor based on nanotechnology.

1999 American physicists James Tour and Mark Reed determined that a single molecule can behave in the same way as molecular chains.

year 2000. The US Administration supported the creation of the National Nanotechnology Initiative. Nanotechnology research has received government funding. Then $500 million was allocated from the federal budget.

year 2001. Mark Ratner believes that nanotechnology became a part of human life in 2001. Then two significant events took place: the influential scientific magazine Science called nanotechnology “the breakthrough of the year,” and the influential business magazine Forbes called it “a new promising idea.” Nowadays, in relation to nanotechnology, the expression “new industrial revolution” is periodically used.

Tomsk State University of Russia has developed compositions and technology for producing new thin-film nanostructured materials based on double oxides of zirconium and germanium, which have high chemical and thermal resistance and good adhesion to various substrates (silicon, glass, polycor, etc.). The thickness of the films ranges from 60 to 90 nm, the size of the inclusions is 20-50 nm. The materials obtained there can be used as coatings:

· glasses (sun-protective – transmits visible light well and reflects up to 45-60% of thermal radiation, heat-protective – reflects up to 40% of solar radiation, selectively transmitting);

· lamps (increase in luminous efficiency by 20-30%);

· tools (protective and strengthening – increasing the service life of products).

Work is also underway at the V.N. Karazin Kharkov National University. Directions of research: surface phenomena, phase transformations and structure of condensed films. Research is carried out on films of metals and alloys (1.5 – 100 nm), obtained by condensation in a vacuum on various substrates using electron microscopy (SPM), electron diffraction, as well as methods developed in the group (Gladkikh N.T., Kryshtal A.P. , Bogatyrenko S.I.)

3.2 achievements of nanotechnologies.

Will liquid armor protect better than Kevlar?

A new type of uniform may soon appear in the US arsenal, which in its protective properties and ergonomic characteristics is superior to modern Kevlar analogues.
The super-protective effect is achieved thanks to a special Kevlar bag filled with a solution of super-hard nanoparticles in a non-evaporating liquid. Once high-energy mechanical pressure is applied to the Kevlar shell, the nanoparticles cluster into clusters, changing the structure of the liquid solution, which turns into a solid composite. This phase transition occurs in less than a millisecond, which makes it possible to protect soldiers not only from a knife blow, but also from a bullet or shrapnel.

And recently, the American holding manufacturer of soldier uniforms and body armor, U.S. Armor Holdings, licensed the technology<жидкого бронежилета>and plans to begin mass production later this year.

Nanotubes in the regeneration of brain and heart muscle tissue

One of the most interesting achievements of scientists in the field of nanomedicine was the technology for restoring damaged nerve tissue using carbon nanotubes.

As experiments have shown, after implanting special matrices of nanotubes in a solution of stem cells into damaged areas of the brain, scientists discovered restoration of nervous tissue within eight weeks.
However, when using nanotubes or stem cells separately, there was no similar result. According to scientists, this discovery will help people suffering from Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.
Nanostructures can also help in recovery therapy after acute heart disease. Thus, nanoparticles introduced into the blood vessels of mice helped restore cardiovascular activity after myocardial infarction. The principle of the method is that self-assembled polymer nanoparticles help<запустить>natural mechanisms of vascular restoration.

Nanodiamonds - a new word in nanomedicine

As Nano Digest reports, new nanoparticles, called nanodiamonds by scientists, can be used to effectively transport healthy genes into diseased cells of the body. Nanodiamonds are less toxic to the body than carbon nanotubes and are completely biocompatible. According to scientists, their discovery could become one of the promising methods of combating serious diseases, including cancer.

In modern medicine, the most often used method is to transport genes using viruses, which, during the course of evolution, have developed very effective mechanisms for penetrating cells. The downside of this method is the possibility of developing cancerous processes or even cell death.

Another delivery method is based on the use of polymer shells, which are less dangerous, but also much worse at penetrating cells. According to researchers, nanodiamonds, which easily disperse in water and just as easily penetrate cells and do not cause irritation inside it, will help solve the problem of gene transport. The team is currently developing multifunctional nanodiamonds that can be used for drug display and subsequent drug delivery.

Nanotechnology will save world culture

If until now it was necessary to carry out complex operations to remove dust and dirt from ancient paintings, now the works of masters will be cleaned without harm to the art. The revolutionary method is based on nanotechnology, which today finds application in the most unexpected areas.
Although nanotechnology began to develop relatively long ago, until recently it remained in the shadows, as if gaining strength in order to loudly declare itself. Today, the new industry is attracting increased public interest.
Nanotechnology operates with the smallest particles, the sizes of which do not exceed thousands of nanometers (ten to the ninth power of meters). It is difficult to predict all the opportunities that new technology will provide us with - effective medicines, unique materials, miniature devices, and, as it turns out, this is not the limit.
Chemist Piero Baglioni from the University of Florence has developed a new method for cleaning works of art. Until now, even the most sensitive modern cleaning methods were accompanied by numerous problems - now all of them will be eliminated. This requires a sponge, a special gel and, oddly enough, a magnet.
Many current methods lead to slow deterioration of paintings. When removing stains, museum workers, despite all their efforts, often leave particles of cleaning products on the painting.
Piero Baglioni claims to have found a way to solve these problems by creating a cleaning gel that can be removed using a magnet. “Our development will replace the old method,” Baglioni is confident.
The gel consists mainly of a polymer (polyethylene glycol and acrylamide) impregnated with iron nanoparticles. During the work, the painting is cleaned using special detergents, then the area of ​​contamination is covered with a new gel, which absorbs all the remaining cleaning agent from the surface of the painting.
The last stage involves exposure to the gel, which is easily removed from the surface of the painting using a regular magnet without destroying the work of art. Thus, nanotechnology will make it possible to preserve cultural heritage for our descendants.

Microorganisms can produce nanotechnology

Can't we live at least one day without hearing anything about bacteria and viruses? Perhaps not, but we want to hear good news. Our use of the term “microscopic” is unlikely to cease, and its use when talking about nanotechnology is just another example.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Texas at Austin attempted to use the once popular bacterium E. coli to create superconducting nanocrystals that could possibly soon appear in a new generation of computers—optical PCs.

Tiny optical computers of the future may use optical signals instead of electronic signals to process data, and superconducting nanocrystals created by bacteria will act as light-emitting diodes (LEDS) needed to control optical signals.

Viruses can also be produced in nanotechnology laboratories. In 2006, scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology took on the problem of producing small bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that can infect bacteria) to create nanowires that could be used in lithium ion nanobatteries.

Some nanomaterials can build themselves

The following example of the use of nanotechnology is perhaps one of the most impressive demonstrations of the potential of nanotechnology. Under certain conditions, molecules can grow and in the process are capable of acquiring different configurations (depending on their charge and other natural properties of molecular chemistry).

This simple process makes it clear that self-assembling microcomputers are no longer science fiction.

Examples of complex self-education are quite common. A group of Swedish researchers have literally grown nanowires, building a complex nanotree, which they plan to equip with solar “leaves” and create a kind of solar nanobattery.

Besides ease of fabrication, the real advantage of “growing” nanomaterials is that they maintain homogeneity and are not affected by inhomogeneities that can arise during the normal fabrication process.

A potential stumbling block may be the concern of those who fear that the self-assembly process could become uncontrollable, leading humanity to the same level as depicted in the Terminator trilogy.

3.3 prospects for nanotechnology

1. Medicine. Creation of molecular robotic doctors that would “live” inside the human body, eliminating or preventing all damage that occurs, including genetic ones.
The implementation period is the first half of the 21st century.

2. Gerontology. Achieving personal immortality of people through the introduction of molecular robots into the body that prevent cell aging, as well as the restructuring and improvement of tissues of the human body. Revival and healing of those hopelessly ill people who were currently frozen by cryonics methods.
Implementation period: third - fourth quarter of the 21st century.
3. Industry. Replacing traditional production methods with molecular robots assembling consumer goods directly from atoms and molecules.
The implementation period is the beginning of the 21st century.

4. Agriculture. Replacement of natural food producers (plants and animals) with functionally similar complexes of molecular robots.
They will reproduce the same chemical processes that occur in a living organism, but in a shorter and more efficient way. For example, from the chain
"soil - carbon dioxide - photosynthesis - grass - cow - milk" all unnecessary links will be removed. What will remain is “soil - carbon dioxide - milk
(cottage cheese, butter, meat)". Such "agriculture" will not depend on weather conditions and will not require hard physical labor. And its productivity will be enough to solve the food problem once and for all.

Implementation period: second - fourth quarter of the 21st century.
5. Biology. It will become possible to introduce nanoelements into a living organism at the atomic level. The consequences can be very different - from
"restoration" of extinct species to the creation of new types of living beings, biorobots.

6. Ecology. Complete elimination of the harmful effects of human activity on the environment. Firstly, by saturating the ecosphere with molecular robotic nurses that transform human waste into raw materials, and secondly, by transferring industry and agriculture to waste-free nanotechnological methods.
Implementation period: mid-21st century.

7. Space exploration. Apparently, space exploration in the “usual” order will be preceded by its exploration by nanorobots. A huge army of robotic molecules will be released into near-Earth space and prepare it for human settlement - make the Moon, asteroids, and nearby planets habitable, and build space stations from “survival materials” (meteorites, comets). It will be much cheaper and safer than current methods.

8. Cybernetics. There will be a transition from currently existing planar structures to volumetric microcircuits, the sizes of active elements will decrease to the size of molecules. The operating frequencies of computers will reach terahertz values.
Circuit solutions based on neuron-like elements will become widespread.
A high-speed long-term memory based on protein molecules will appear, the capacity of which will be measured in terabytes. It will become possible
"relocation" of human intelligence into a computer.
Implementation period: first - second quarter of the 21st century.

9. Reasonable living environment. By introducing logical nanoelements into all attributes of the environment, it will become “intelligent” and extremely comfortable for humans.
Implementation period: after the 21st century.

Conclusion

Innovation activity is a type of activity associated with the transformation of innovation ideas into a new improved product introduced on the market; into a new or improved technological process used in practical activities; into a new approach to social services.

The following main types of innovative activities are distinguished: instrumental preparation and organization of production, production start-up and production development, including modifications of the product and technological process, retraining of personnel for the use of new technologies and equipment, marketing of new products; acquisition of non-material technology in the form of patents, licenses, know-how, trademarks, designs, models and technological content services; acquisition of machinery or equipment related to the introduction of innovations; production design necessary for the development, production and marketing of new goods and services; reorganization of the management structure.

The choice of the method and direction of an enterprise's innovative activity depends on the resource, scientific and technical potential of the enterprise, market requirements, stages of the life cycle of equipment and technology, and the characteristics of its industry.

When designing, developing and implementing innovations, it is necessary to determine the necessary costs for their implementation, possible sources of financing, evaluate the economic efficiency of introducing innovations, and compare the effectiveness of various innovations by comparing income and costs.

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