Restoration and final liquidation of the Kyiv and Volyn appanage principalities - Knowledge Hypermarket. Restoration and final liquidation of the Kyiv and Volyn appanage principalities of the Ukrainian lands in the 15th - early 16th centuries

Section V. Ukrainian lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and other states (second half of the XIV - XV centuries)

§ 19. Ukrainian lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

After reading this paragraph, you will learn: how most of the Ukrainian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; what policy did the Lithuanian princes and Poland pursue in relation to the Ukrainian lands; how appanage principalities were liquidated on Ukrainian lands and the resistance of local princes was suppressed.

1. In what year did the Galician-Volyn state cease to exist? 2. Who was the last prince of the Galician-Volyn state? 3. Which countries divided the Galician-Volyn lands among themselves?

Baptism of Mindaugas. Illustration of the 17th century.

1. Formation of the Lithuanian state and its policy towards Ukrainian lands.

While most of the Russian principalities fell under Mongol rule, the Lithuanian state arose on the northwestern borders of the former Rus'.

The beginning of the existence of the state was laid by Prince Ringold, who in the first quarter of the 13th century. united several Lithuanian tribes under his rule. Ringold's son Mindovg continued his father's policy of expanding his possessions. It is with his reign that the creation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is associated. Mindovg made the city of Novogrudok (Novgorodok) the capital of his possessions.

By the middle of the 13th century. Mindovg subjugated the lands of Black Rus' and part of White Rus', and also forced the Polotsk, Vitebsk and Minsk princes to recognize their power. In 1242 and 1249

Mindovg defeated the Mongols, which significantly strengthened his authority. An important event was the baptism of the prince in 1246 according to the Orthodox rite. Mindovg was prompted to take this step by the fact that the basis of the economic and military power of the principality was the former Russian principalities (Belarusian lands).

The name "Lithuania", according to some scientists, comes from the Slavic word "to pour". Initially, the word “Lithuania” could mean the confluence of three rivers. Modern Lithuanian scientists associate the name of their country with the Mezhait (Mezhait is one of the Lithuanian tribes) word “Lietuva”, which means “freedom”, “free land”.

Ukrainian lands in the second half of the 14th century.

Prince Gediminas

Coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Prince Olgerd

In 1248-1249 Mindovg united all the lands of Lithuania under his rule. His active policy caused resistance from Danil Galitsky. A long war broke out between the two rulers. However, over time, they established allied relations, sealing them with the dynastic marriage of their children. Subsequently, as you already know, the son of Danil Shvarno became a Lithuanian prince. The two states turned into a kind of shield for Europe from Mongol raids.

After the death of Švarn, the Lithuanian dynasty returned to power in Lithuania.

The territories of Lithuania increased especially rapidly during the reign of Prince Gediminas (1316-1341), who completed the annexation of Belarusian lands begun by Mindaugas, and also captured part of the Northern Ukrainian ones. Gediminas founded the new capital of the principality, the city of Vilna. Further advance of Lithuania to the south was restrained by the Galician-Volyn state. Only after his death did Lithuania begin to quickly annex Ukrainian lands to its possessions. The first significant acquisition of Lithuania was Volyn, where Gediminas' son Lubart began to reign.

The expansion of Lithuanian possessions to the south continued during the reign of Grand Duke Olgerd (1345-1377), son of Gediminas. At the end of 1361 - beginning of 1362, he captured Kiev and nearby lands, then Chernigovo-Severshchina and most of the Pereyaslav region. In his campaigns, Olgerd was actively helped by the local nobility, who preferred Lithuanian domination to Mongolian domination. The successful advance of the Lithuanians to the Black Sea coast inevitably provoked resistance from the Mongol Temniks, who owned Podolia and the Black Sea steppes. The decisive battle took place in 1362 (according to other sources - in 1363) on the Blue Waters (now, according to most scientists, this is the Sinyukha River, which flows into the Southern Bug). Having won, Olgerd finally ousted the Horde from Podolia.

Trakai Castle is the residence of Lithuanian princes. Modern look

As a result of the campaign, Olgerd was able to annex most of the Ukrainian lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - the Kiev region with Pereyaslav region, Podolia and Chernigovo-Severshchina.

The rapid transition of Ukrainian lands under the rule of Lithuania is explained by the fact that the Lithuanian princes maintained Orthodoxy, and the culture of Rus' had a great influence on them. The Lithuanians did not actually change the existing relations, did not violate the traditions that had developed in these lands. Faith, language, and legal proceedings were preserved. The Lithuanians acted on the principle: “We do not change the old and do not introduce the new.” In addition, the former Russian principalities did not have any real power that could resist the Lithuanian advance.

The annexation of the southern Russian lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania allowed Olgerd to lay claim to other lands of Rus'. On this path, his main opponent was the Moscow Principality. The conflict between the two states, which sought to unite the Russian lands under their rule, broke out in 1368 and continued until 1537.

2. The revival of appanage principalities on Ukrainian lands and their liquidation. After the inclusion of Ukrainian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Olgerd restored the appanage system. The principalities were headed by representatives of the Lithuanian dynasties of Gediminovich and Olgerdovich. The appanage principalities were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke and were obliged to “serve faithfully,” pay annual tribute and, if necessary, provide their troops.

However, soon the power of the Grand Duke became burdensome for the appanage princes, and they began to show signs of independent life. These aspirations became especially noticeable after the death of Olgerd during the struggle for the Lithuanian grand-ducal throne.

At the same time, the issue of preserving the integrity of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became relevant. Olgerd bequeathed the core of his possessions to his eldest son from his second wife, Jogaila. In addition, all Gediminovichs and Olgerdovichs also fell under his authority. However, the new Grand Duke unexpectedly faced opposition from his relatives. In addition, a threat loomed over Lithuania and Poland - the Teutonic Order. Under these conditions, in 1385, the Union of Krevo was concluded between the two countries, according to which Lithuania was to accept Catholicism and permanently annex its Lithuanian and Russian lands to Poland. Thus, having united with Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost its independence. In 1386, Grand Duke Jagiello was baptized according to the Catholic rite under the name Vladislav, married the Polish Queen Jadwiga and became the King of Poland, and at the same time the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

Having become king, Jagiello actively began to implement the terms of the union. The baptism of Lithuanians according to the Catholic rite began, and Lithuanian Catholics received privileges on an equal basis with the Polish elite. The appanage princes were sworn in to the new king. Their vassal dependence on Jogaila was manifested in the payment of annual tribute and the need to provide military assistance. In all other matters they enjoyed complete freedom. Thus, the Kiev prince Vladimir Olgerdovich even minted his own coin.

However, some Lithuanian princes, led by Vytautas, were dissatisfied with the Union of Krevo. They supported the preservation of Lithuania's independence. Jogaila in 1392 was forced to recognize Vytautas as the governor of Lithuania, and he actually became the Lithuanian prince. The Union of Krevo was abolished.

However, the Kiev prince Vladimir, the Novgorod-Seversk prince Dmitry-Koribut and the Podolian prince Fyodor Koriatovich refused to recognize the power of Vitovt. An armed struggle broke out, during which Vytautas began to liquidate the appanage principalities. By the end of the 90s. XIV century the largest appanage principalities were abolished, and the princes were replaced by the governors of Vytautas. These steps contributed to the centralization and strengthening of the independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Union - unification, union. Here: the unification under certain conditions of two states under the leadership of one monarch.

Olgerd at the head of his army in the Battle of Blue Waters (1362). Modern drawing

Battle of the Vorskla River. Modern drawing

Vytautas's power was supported by the Ukrainian nobility, who opposed Catholicism and saw in him a ruler capable of resisting the encroachments of the Moscow principality and the attacks of the Mongols. However, Vytautas’s plans to transform the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into an independent powerful state were not destined to come true. In the summer of 1399, in the battle on the Vorskla River, he was defeated by the Mongols and was forced to seek ways of reconciliation with Jagiel.

On January 18, 1401, a union was concluded in Vilna, according to which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania recognized vassal dependence on Poland. After the death of Vytautas, all Ukrainian and Lithuanian lands were to come under the authority of the Polish king.

Having concluded the Union of Vilna, Vytautas with new zeal began to strengthen his principality. He achieved success in the war with the Moscow state, annexing part of its possessions. In Novgorod, Vitovt planted his supporters, and the Ryazan and Tver principalities recognized vassal dependence on the Lithuanian prince. Having thus strengthened his eastern borders, Vytautas, together with Poland, took an active part in the fight against the Teutonic Order, which ended in victory for the united Polish-Lithuanian-Ukrainian army in the Battle of Grunwald (1410).

Battle of Grunwald. Artist J. Matejko

After the victory over the Teutonic Order, which became a vassal of Poland, hopes for the independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania again arose. The new balance of power was consolidated by the Union of Gorodel in 1413. According to the union, the independence of Lithuania was recognized even after the death of Vytautas, but under the authority of the Polish king. The union also confirmed the privileged position of Catholics: only they could occupy the highest positions in the state. This caused discontent on the part of the Orthodox nobility and led to internal conflict in Lithuania, which broke out shortly after the death of Vytautas.

In order to ensure independence for himself and his lands from Poland, Vytautas decided to be crowned. This issue was raised at a congress in Lutsk in 1429. Vytautas was supported by the Holy Roman Emperor and other European rulers. The coronation was scheduled for September 8, 1430. However, the crown was not delivered to Vilna on time: it was intercepted and destroyed by the Poles, who did not want to break the union. The coronation had to be postponed, and on October 27, 1430, Vytautas suddenly died. Some historians suggest that he was poisoned.

Prince Svidrigailo

Vytautas the Great at the congress in Lutsk (1429). Artist J. Makevicius

3. “Grand Duchy of Russia.” The Battle of Vilkomir and its consequences. After the death of Vytautas, the Belarusian, Ukrainian and part of the Lithuanian nobility, without the consent of the Polish king, elected Svidrigail Olgerdovich (1430-1432) as prince of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This threatened the continued existence of the Polish-Lithuanian union. Poland immediately started the war.

Dissatisfied with the actions of Svidrigail, who supported the Russian Orthodox nobility, which took a leading place at the princely court, the Lithuanians elected Vitovt's brother Sigismund Keistutovich to the grand-ducal throne. Sigismund restored the Union of Vilna in 1401, but was unable to extend his influence to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Beresteyshchyna, Podlasie, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk lands, Severshchina, Kiev region, Volyn and Eastern Podolia recognized Svidrigail as their ruler and united into the “Grand Duchy of Russia”.

Relying on the support of these lands, Svidrigailo launched a successful offensive against Sigismund. Concerned about this development of events, Sigismund and Jagiello made some changes to the union. In 1432 and 1434 acts were issued equalizing the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox nobility. However, Orthodox Christians were subsequently prohibited from holding senior positions in the state. This step somewhat reduced the number of supporters of Svidrigail, who was already losing support as a result of his inconsistent and cruel actions.

The decisive battle in the struggle for the princely throne was the battle that took place on September 1, 1435 near Vilkomir (now the city of Ukmerge in Lithuania). Svidrigailo was completely defeated, and the idea of ​​​​creating an independent “Grand Duchy of Russia” was never realized. By the end of 1438, Sigismund captured the entire territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Sigismund owed his victory to Poland, but soon he became burdened by its dominance, and he began a policy aimed at strengthening the independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In his actions, Sigismund relied on small landowners and knights, and not on appanage princes, whose power he limited. The Ukrainian and Belarusian princes did not accept this situation. They organized a conspiracy and killed Sigismund. The Lithuanian nobility elected Jogaila's youngest son Casimir as the new Grand Duke, but real power was concentrated in the hands of the Lithuanian nobility led by Jan Gastold. In response to these events, an uprising broke out in the Ukrainian lands, and the Lithuanians were forced to make concessions to the Orthodox nobility.

The proclamation of Casimir as Grand Duke, and not the ruling Polish king Wladyslaw III, meant the actual rupture of the Polish-Lithuanian union. Although Casimir became the Polish king in 1447 after the death of Władysław III, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained its independence.

4. Kiev and Volyn appanage principalities. To prevent new uprisings by Ukrainian appanage princes, after the proclamation of Casimir as Grand Duke, the Kiev and Volyn appanage principalities were restored. The Volyn principality was given to Svidrigail, who ruled it until the end of his life (until 1452), after which it was liquidated.

In the Kiev appanage principality, the rule of the Olgerdovich dynasty was restored. The son of Vladimir Olgerdovich, Alexander (Olelko) Vladimirovich (1441-1454), became the prince.

Olelko and his son Semyon (1455-1470) tried to restore the power of the Kyiv state. In addition to strengthening power, the Olelkovichs sought to expand their possessions. Thus, the Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Bratslav region (Eastern Podolia), and part of the Chernihiv region came under their rule. The Olelkovichs contributed to the development of the steppe expanses (Wild Field) to the south of their possessions, waging a desperate struggle against the Tatars.

The Kyiv princes not only dealt with the problems of their own possessions, but also laid claim to the grand-ducal throne.

In 1458, Semyon Olelkovich achieved the creation of an independent Kyiv Orthodox Metropolis. This event finally divided the Ukrainian and Moscow Orthodox churches.

The growth of the power of the Principality of Kyiv and its almost independent existence worried the Grand Duke of Lithuania. After the death of Semyon Olelkovich in 1471, he liquidated the principality. Semyon's brother Mikhail Olelkovich was not allowed into Kyiv, and Martin Gashtold became his governor.

Polish medieval chronicler Jan Dlugosz about the reasons for the liquidation of the Kyiv principality

The Lithuanian lords really wanted this principality [of Kiev] to be again turned into an ordinary province of the grand duchy, like other Russian principalities, and demanded that the king appoint Martin Gashtold as governor here.

On the liquidation of the Kyiv principality by the Lithuanian authorities (from the “Appendix to the Ipatiev Chronicle”)

Year 1471. Semyon Olelkovich, Prince of Kyiv, rested in peace. After his death, Casimir, King of Poland, wanting the Principality of Kiev to cease to exist, did not plant Semyonov’s son Martin there, but installed a governor from Lithuania, Martin Gashtold, a Pole, whom the people of Kiev did not want to accept not only because he was not a prince, but more because he was a Lyakh; however, being forced, they agreed. And from that time on, there were no princes in Kyiv, and instead of princes there were governors.

1. What reasons does Jan Dlugosz name for the liquidation of the Kyiv appanage principality? 2. How does the chronicle explain the non-acceptance of the Lithuanian governor by the people of Kiev? 3. Was the liquidation of appanage principalities a natural phenomenon?

Martin Gashtold had to forcefully assert his power in Kyiv, whose residents did not want to see him as their governor.

Thus, by the beginning of the 70s. XV century The appanage system was finally eliminated on Ukrainian lands and voivodes began to govern the lands.

5. Speeches of the Russian Orthodox nobility at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. With the liquidation of the Volyn and Kyiv appanage principalities, the Lithuanian nobility strengthened its position and could no longer take into account the interests of the Russian Orthodox nobility. However, representatives of the Russian Orthodox nobility tried to restore its former influence and position. One of the manifestations of this was the conspiracy of 1481,

when the younger descendants of the Olelkovichs, deprived of their inheritance, tried to separate their former possessions from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and annex them to the Moscow Principality. However, the plot was discovered and the conspirators were executed.

After the death of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk in 1492, his son Alexander (1492-1506) became the heir. The new Grand Duke continued policies aimed at strengthening the power of Catholics. The Lithuanian Catholic nobility advocated the independence of Lithuania and against the union with Poland, seeing their rivals in the Polish nobility. The Muscovite state immediately took advantage of the tense relations between Lithuania and Poland and, having entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, launched an offensive against Lithuania. The Moscow state finally subjugated Tver and Novgorod, which gravitated towards Lithuania, and captured almost the entire Chernigovo-Severshchina. The Verkhovsky princes, descendants of the Rurikovichs, went into the service of the Moscow prince. At the same time, devastating raids by the Crimean Tatars began on Ukrainian lands.

Ukrainian lands in the 15th - early 16th centuries.

The last uprising of the weakened Russian Orthodox nobility was the uprising of 1508 under the leadership of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, which engulfed the Turov and Kyiv lands. However, the rest of the princes did not support the rebellion, and M. Glinsky fled to Moscow. Prince Konstantin Ivanovich Ostrozhsky played a decisive role in suppressing Glinsky’s speech.

Coat of arms of the princes Glinsky

In his youth, Mikhail Glinsky, having converted to Catholicism, went abroad, where he studied at the courts of European monarchs. He received a good education, mastered the art of war perfectly, and upon returning to his homeland he became the most influential person at the court of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander. As the prince's influence grew, his land holdings increased. However, after the death of Alexander, under the new Grand Duke Sigismund, he fell out of favor and lost all his privileges. His lands became the object of encroachment by other princes. Realizing the precariousness of his position, Glinsky decided to rebel.

6. Polish domination of Ukrainian lands at the end of the 14th - 15th centuries.

With the annexation of Galicia, Polish expansion into Ukrainian lands did not stop. The next target of encroachment was Podolia.

After the Lithuanians reconquered the Podolian land from the Tatars, the Podolian principality was formed, headed by the princes Koriatovich. During the reign of Fyodor Koriatovich, the principality achieved almost complete independence. As already mentioned, in 1392 Fedor refused to recognize the power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas, however, unable to defend his possessions in the fight against him, he fled to Hungary. The Podolsk principality was liquidated, but Vytautas had to immediately defend these lands from the Poles.

The Poles could not allow Vytautas to gain power. Polish troops broke into Podolia, but were unable to immediately take possession of it. Only after a desperate struggle, Vitovt was forced to cede the western part of the region (west of the Murafa River) with the cities of Kamenets, Smotrych, Bokota, Skala and Chervonograd. However, already in 1395 Western Podolia was returned to the Lithuanians.

The struggle for these lands did not end there. Taking advantage of the civil strife in Lithuania, in 1430 the Polish army again invaded Podolia. This time the Poles met powerful resistance from the local population, led by princes Fedko Nesvizhsky and Alexander Nos. The Poles were defeated, but it was then that a conflict broke out between the Grand Duke of Lithuania Svidrigail and Fedko, as a result of which the latter went over to the side of Poland and helped the Poles capture Western Podolia.

To gain a foothold in the annexed Ukrainian lands, the Poles in 1434 created the Russian Voivodeship in Galicia, and the Podolia Voivodeship in Western Podolia.

In the occupied Ukrainian lands, Poland's policy was radically different from Lithuania's. The Poles did not even try to find a common language with the local nobility, but immediately introduced the Polish system of government, transferring it exclusively into the hands of the Poles. In addition, Polish landowners received estates, and German, Jewish and Armenian settlers were invited to the cities and were granted all sorts of privileges. This policy led to the loss of the Ukrainian character of the cities; Ukrainians were forced out of the spheres of crafts and trade.

In Lvov, Ukrainian Orthodox townspeople have become the most disenfranchised group of the city's population. They were forbidden to engage in trade; they could live in the city only in a certain quarter - on Russian Street. All business documents in the city were kept exclusively in Latin or Polish.

Also, the Polish legal system, which was class-based, was introduced on Ukrainian lands. That is, each class had its own judicial body. The gentry were subject to the zemstvo court, the burghers were subject to the magistrate, and everyone else was subject to the starostin court.

The establishment of Polish rule was accompanied by the spread of the influence of the Catholic Church to the east. These lands created their own church organization: bishoprics were founded in Vladimir, Galich, Przemysl, Kamenets, Kholm, and in 1412 an archbishopric was founded in Lviv. At the same time, the authorities prohibited the construction of new Orthodox churches, and closed the old ones under various pretexts. Orthodox priests paid the tax, while Catholic priests were exempt from it. Orthodox Christians were also prohibited from performing rituals, holding holidays, and holding government positions.

Thus, the establishment of Polish rule was accompanied by the Polonization and Catholicization of the Ukrainian population. However, these trends became more pronounced much later.

Conclusions. In the XIV century. Most of the Ukrainian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At first, the policy of the Lithuanian princes was not burdensome for the local population, since they did not violate traditions and did not introduce anything new.

The Lithuanian princes contributed to the liberation of Ukrainian lands from the Mongols. The Battle of Blue Waters (1362) effectively ended Mongol rule. This gives scientists reason to talk about the Lithuanian-Russian state.

With the expansion of the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, conflicts arose with neighboring states, which also sought to own the lands of the former Rus'. In addition, the Catholic Church persistently tried to spread its influence to the east. At the end of the 14th century. There was a rapprochement between Lithuania and Poland, which led to the conclusion of the Krevo Union between them in 1385.

The rapprochement with Poland caused an internal conflict in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which escalated into open armed confrontation.

The Battle of Vilkomir in 1435 determined the further development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the direction of rapprochement with Poland.

In 1452 and 1471 The Volyn and Kiev appanage principalities were liquidated, and the Russian Orthodox nobility finally lost their influence. All her attempts to restore the old order were unsuccessful.

Gradually, Polish-Lithuanian rule was established in the Ukrainian lands, accompanied by the displacement of the Orthodox Church by the Catholic Church and the introduction of new orders.

Questions and tasks

1. As a result of what battle were the Ukrainian lands liberated from Mongol rule? 2. During the reign of which Lithuanian prince, most of the Ukrainian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania? 3. Why at the end of the 14th century. Were the appanage principalities abolished on Ukrainian lands? 4. Between which states and when was the Union of Krevo concluded? 5. Which lands united to form the “Grand Duchy of Russia”? 6. Who won the Battle of Vilkomir on September 1, 1435?

7. What caused the speeches of the Orthodox nobility at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. against Lithuania? 8. What were the consequences for Lithuania of the annexation of a significant part of the lands of former Rus'? 9. describe the domestic and foreign policies of the Lithuanian prince Vytautas. 10. Why did all the actions of the Orthodox nobility in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania fail? 11. Look at the reproduction of the painting by J. Matejka on p. 178 textbook. What moment of the battle does it represent: the beginning, the climax, the end? How did you determine this? What were the consequences of the battle?

12. Make a chronology of the key events of the stay of the Ukrainian lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 13. Explain the principle of the Lithuanian elite, which it adhered to in the 14th century: “We do not change the old and do not introduce the new.” 14. Make a detailed plan for your answer on the topic “Ukrainian lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.”

15. Determine the role of the Lithuanian period in the history of Ukraine.

Kyiv, “mother of Russian cities.” The first capital of the Russian state, its name is associated with the name of Kiy (see: Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv), the legendary founder of the city. According to archaeological data, settlements on the territory of Kyiv already existed in the Late Paleolithic period. Kyiv was founded in the VI-VII centuries. n. e. as the center of the East Slavic tribe Polyan. Kyiv was first mentioned in Russian chronicles around 860 in connection with the Russian campaign against Byzantium. In the Tale of Bygone Years, under 862, there is a legend connecting the origin of the name “Kyiv” with the name Kiya. The rise of Kyiv as the political, cultural and commercial center of Kievan Rus was facilitated by its geographical location. The most important trade routes passed through Kyiv - “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” from Europe to Asia, to Poland, to Constantinople (Constantinople), to the Don, to Murom, to Novgorod. In IX - AD. XII century Kyiv is the center of Kievan Rus, the place where the great Russian saints Anthony and Theodosius and a host of other Pechersk ascetics labored. Crafts, writing, architecture, and painting reached a high level of development in Kyiv. All R. XI century Outstanding monuments of ancient Russian architecture were built in Kyiv: St. Sophia Cathedral, Kiev Pechersk Lavra. In 1037, under Sophia of Kyiv, the first library in Rus' was founded; in the X-XI centuries. the first schools appeared. The first ancient Russian code of laws, Russian Truth, was created in Kyiv.

St. Sophia Cathedral, erected by order of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise by Constantinople masters in 1037-1045.

With the fragmentation of Kievan Rus into a number of appanage principalities, which intensified in the 12th century. and leading to the decline of the ancient Russian state, Kyiv lost its significance as the political center of Ancient Rus'. In the 2nd half. XII century Kyiv became the center of the Kyiv appanage principality. On Dec. 1240 Kyiv after a stubborn defense led by the governor of the Galician-Volyn prince. Daniil Romanovich Dmitry, was captured and destroyed by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. Since 1240, the Principality of Kiev was a vassal of the Golden Horde. OK. 1362 Kyiv was captured by the Lithuanian prince. Olgerd, who transferred the Principality of Kiev into appanage ownership to his son Vladimir. In the 2nd half. XIV-XV centuries the population of Kyiv fought both against the Lithuanian invaders and the Tatar raids. In 1399 Kyiv withstood the siege of the Tatar army; in 1416 the Tatar Khan Edigei, who captured the city, failed to take the princely castle, which was defended by the population. The final liquidation of the appanage principality by the Lithuanian government (1470) caused an uprising in the city against the Lithuanian governor Gashtovt in the present day. 1471. Since 1471 Kyiv became the center of the Kyiv voivodeship of the Lithuanian state. In 1482 Kyiv was captured and plundered by the troops of the Tatar khan Mengli-Girey. But soon the city was restored. In 1494-97, the Lithuanian government, trying to win over the wealthy sections of the population of Kyiv, introduced Magdeburg city law. The revival of economic life caused an increase in the population of Kyiv, which by the end of the 16th century amounted to. OK. 7 thousand people, in the 1st quarter. XVII century - up to 15 thousand. After the conclusion of the Union of Lublin by Poland and Lithuania in 1569, Kyiv was captured by Poland. In chapter XVI - 1st half. XVII century The population of Kyiv actively opposed the invaders, who were expelled from the city in 1648 by a peasant Cossack army led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. 16 Jan 1654 the population of Kyiv solemnly met the Russian ambassadors and took an oath of allegiance to Russia. Since 1654, Kyiv became the center of the Kyiv voivodeship, which was part of Russia (from 1708 - the Kyiv province, from 1781 - the Kyiv governorship, from 1797 - the Kyiv province). “The Mother of Russian Cities” again became one of the main spiritual and cultural centers of the Russian state, a place of worship for all-Russian saints - the Pechersk miracle workers.

Archaeological excavations show that settlements in the Kyiv region already existed 15,000-20,000 years ago.

View of Sophia Square

During the Bronze Age, the territories of the southwestern part are characterized by the Belogrudov culture. The Chalcolithic (Copper Age) and Neolithic periods are represented by the Trypillian culture, the monuments and periods of which researchers divide into three stages: early (4500 - 3500), middle (3500-2750) and late (2750 - 2000 BC) . e.).

The Zarubinets culture is characteristic of the north-west of the Kiev region in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. - first half of the 1st millennium AD e.

The Iron Age on the territory of modern Kyiv and the Kyiv region is represented by the Chernyakhov archaeological culture, which is also called the “Kyiv culture” and which existed at the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries. - turn of the IV-V centuries. in the forest-steppe and steppe from the Lower Danube in the west to the left bank of the Dnieper and Chernihiv region in the east.

There is a legend that Kyiv was founded by three brothers Kiy, Shchek and Khoryv and sister Lybid as the center of the Polyan tribe. Named after his older brother. According to archaeological research, the first urban settlement on the territory of Podol appeared no earlier than the 880s. According to the traditional point of view, since 882 Kyiv was the capital of Kievan Rus. The earliest mentions of the city, in the treatise “On the Administration of the Empire” by Constantine Porphyrogenitus and in the Kiev letter to the Jewish community, indicate that at the beginning of the 10th century Kyiv was a border fortress of Khazaria on the border with Levedia (a proto-Hungarian entity in Ukraine). Constantine calls this fortress “Sambat”, which means “upper fortifications” in Turkic languages ​​(probably also Khazar). The results of some archaeological excavations give reason to believe that already in the VI-VII centuries. settlements on the right bank of the Dnieper can be considered urban. This concept, reinforced by the celebration of the 1500th anniversary of Kyiv in 1982, was considered generally accepted. However, in contrast to the “anniversary concept,” some historians and archaeologists believe, as before, that the formation of Kyiv as a city took place in the 8th-10th centuries. Only at the end of this period did individual settlements merge into a single urban settlement

Kiev metro, at the station "Pochtovaya Ploshchad"

In Kievan Rus, possession of the Kyiv Grand Ducal Table provided the prince with eldership in Rus' even after its collapse into separate principalities. In 1240 it was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars. Since 1362 it has been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; after the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Kiev region was not part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but of the Polish crown lands.

Since 1654 (Pereyaslav Rada) Kyiv has been part of the Russian state; unlike the rest of Left Bank Ukraine, Kyiv was ceded to Poland initially temporarily, then, according to the “Eternal Peace” of 1686 with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - permanently; since 1721 as part of the Russian Empire, the center of the Kyiv province. From January 1918 to April 1919 - the capital of independent Ukraine (Central Rada, Hetmanate of Skoropadsky, Directorate of Petliura). At the same time, since 1918, the capital of the Soviet Ukrainian SSR was Kharkov. In 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved to Kyiv from Kharkov by decision of the Council of People's Commissars of Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Kyiv was occupied by the Germans from September 19, 1941 to November 6, 1943. In August - September 1941, one of the largest battles of the initial period of the Great Patriotic War took place in the Kyiv area, known in world historiography as the Battle of Kyiv 1941.

For the heroism shown during the defense, Kyiv was awarded the title of hero city (Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of June 21, 1961; approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, May 8, 1965). Since December 1991, Kiev has been the capital of the independent state of Ukraine.

"Great Russian reign" (1430-1435). Restoration of the appanage structure and its final liquidation (1440-1471).

The death of Vytautas in 1430 awakened hope among the Orthodox forces of the Lithuanian and Russian population for changes for the better. They are connected primarily with the election of a new Prince of Lithuania. Contrary to the provisions of the Gorodel Union, Lithuanian and Russian feudal lords, without the consent of the Polish king, elected Svidrigailo (1430-1432) as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. The new prince immediately set a course for state independence of Lithuania, and with it the Russian lands within it. His apparatus ceased to obey the orders of the Polish king, and the replacement of Polish garrisons with Lithuanian ones began. Poland responded to these goals of the Lithuanian administration and Svidrigailo’s demand to return Podolia captured by the Poles to Lithuania with military action. In November 1430, her troops captured several Podolsk castles. In response, Svidrigailo’s supporters and the local nobility captured Zbarazh, Kremenets and other cities. The protests of the Podolsk and Volyn population against the Polish authorities were gaining wider scope. To suppress them, in the summer of 1431 Jagiello led a strong Polish army to Russian lands. Breaking the resistance of local residents, the army advanced deeper into Volyn. The defense of Ukrainian lands was led by Prince Fyodor Nesvizhsky, Bogdan Rohatynsky and other feudal lords. The townspeople of Lutsk, under the leadership of the courageous governor Yursha, defended the castle and harmed the Poles in its vicinity. Headman Ivan Presluzhych turned Olesko Castle into an impregnable outpost of the liberation forces in Volyn. Here the offensive power of the Polish army was defeated. The rebels also had success in Galicia. The main guarantee of the success of the liberation struggle on Russian lands in the summer of 1431 was the unity of action of patriotic circles of Russian and Lithuanian societies. A real prospect of gaining independence for the two states opened before them.

However, Svidrigailo’s orientation primarily towards the Russian nobility caused concern and protest among the Lithuanian feudal lords. Not wanting to put up with the real prospect of losing Russian lands, the Lithuanian princes and boyars organized a conspiracy, overthrew Svidrigailo and proclaimed Sigismund Keistutovich (1432-1440) the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Sigismund restored the union between Lithuania and Poland in 1401, returned Western Podolia and the border towns of Olesko, Semyonovka, Lopatin and others to Poland. Lithuania recognized the superiority of Poland. The Russian lands separated from both Poland and Lithuania and followed an independent path of development. This period was called in history the “Great Russian Reign.”

The Smolensk region, Vitebsk region and Polotsk land joined the Eastern Podolia, Volyn, Kiev and Severshchina. The restructuring of the state began. Locally, proteges of the Polish king and supporters of the Grand Duke of Lithuania were expelled, power was increasingly taken over by the Russian aristocracy. The Krakow bishop wrote to the cardinal on this occasion that Svidrigailo obeyed the “Russian schismatics” in everything and gave them the most important castles and governments. The Russian nobility had significant successes in Podolia and Volyn, where the Bratslav governor Neviskiy and Lutsk Nos became the head of the liberation forces. Svidrigailo, together with the German knights, began military operations against Lithuania. The “Great Russian Reign” gradually gained the upper hand over the metropolis.

In order to spare Svidrigailo the support of the national nobility, “Jagiello in 1432 issued a privilege, which compared in property and personal rights those “Russian” boyars who went over to Sigismund’s side with the Lithuanian Catholic boyars. Another advantage gave the Lutsk feudal lords equal rights with the Polish gentry If these privileges suited the Russian boyars to some extent, then the princes did not, and they continued the fight to the bitter end. In May 1434, Sigismund promulgated a new document that significantly expanded the rights and privileges of the Lithuanian and Russian feudal lords. The privileges of 1432 also extended to the princes. The Grand Duke pledged not to punish any of the feudal lords without trial, that is, he introduced elements of the rule of law. After the introduction of this privilege, Russian feudal lords began to go over to Sigismund’s side, first alone, and then in groups. Such transitions intensified Svidrigailo’s brutal reprisals against the dissatisfied, as well as him. attempts to conclude a church union and alliance with the German knights.

The weakening of patriotic forces soon took its toll. In September 1435, near Vilkomir, a decisive battle took place between the Russian troops of Prince Svidrigailo in alliance with the knights of the Livonian Order and the Polish-Lithuanian troops of Sigismund. The Russian troops were led by the hero of the Hussite wars, Prince Sigismund Korybutovich, close to Jan Žižka. In a brutal battle, the Russian army and its allies suffered a crushing defeat. Only 13 princes died in it, including their leader, 42 were captured, and Svidrigailo himself with a detachment “to the ZO husband” escaped. Soon after this, Smolensk broke away from the Russian Principality, and the following year Polotsk and Vitebsk. The weakened Russian lands were left alone with two powerful, hostile states. Svidrigailo abandoned further struggle, renounced the title of Grand Duke of the “Grand Duchy of Russia” and left for Volyn. Most Bratslav, Kyiv and Seversk officials followed his example.

The patriotic minority of Russian princes did not give in to the national idea and continued the struggle for the independence of Ukraine. The Volyn princes Ivan and Alexander Czartoryski organized a conspiracy of Russian patriots and in 1440 killed Sigismund. Immediately, uprisings against Lithuania broke out in Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian lands. They became so threatening that the newly elected Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV (1440-1492) was forced to recognize the restoration of the Kyiv and Volyn principalities. The son of Vladimir Olgerdovich Olelko (Alexander, 1440-1455), who was displaced by Vytautas, became the Kyiv prince; Svidrigailo (1440-1452) became the Volyn prince. The ten-year liberation struggle of Russian princes and boyars ended in victory. The Russian lands have once again renewed their national autonomous statehood.

In the existence of the appanage principality, opposing trends were clearly defined. The first is the desire of the Russian princes to gain complete state independence. And the second is the attempt of the Lithuanian rulers to liquidate the Russian autonomous entity. Everything depended on the strength and unity of both the Russian community and the Polish-Lithuanian union, which gradually began to revive. After the death of the Polish king Vladislav III in the battle with the Turks, the Polish gentry in 1445 elected the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV as their king. The tireless struggle of the Russian princes forced the king in 1447 to issue a new privilege, which extended noble liberties and privileges to the gentry of all lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Volyn and Eastern Podolia were assigned to Lithuania. The power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the Ukrainian lands increased.

A coalition of Lithuanian magnates led by Casimir IV was formed, which advocated the immediate elimination of the autonomy of the Russian principalities. Taking advantage of the death of Svidrigailo, the Grand Duke of Lithuania occupied the Volyn cities and in 1462 liquidated the Volyn principality. The Lithuanian governor began to govern the region. The princes and boyars of Zvyagel, parts of the Mozir region and Bratslav region refused to submit to the authority of the ruler and came under the protection of the Kyiv prince. The Russian nobility did the same in other Volyn and Podolian lands bordering the Kyiv principality. The Principality of Kiev was once again turning into a consolidation center of the Russian people. Prince Olelko Vladimirovich continued his parents' course towards rapprochement with the local boyars and full satisfaction of their interests. He widely assigned estates to the boyars, removed them from the jurisdiction of the grand ducal officials, and gave a number of privileges to the Kyiv petty bourgeoisie. His son Semyon Olelkovich (Alexandrovich, 1466-1470) actively supported the magnate group opposed to the Polish king and was considered a real contender for the grand ducal throne. In his actions, the Kiev prince used the autonomist aspirations of the southwestern uluses of the Golden Horde and the creation in 1449 of an independent, friendly Crimean Khanate. The power of the Kyiv prince extended to the southern and southwestern Russian lands. In the 50s XV century The Principality of Kiev occupied a vast territory from the mouth of the Dniester and into the Northern Kiev region. Its southern border extended north of Ochakov to the mouth of the Dnieper, the Dnieper fortress of Taman and further along the rivers Ovechya Voda, Samara, Tikhaya Sosna and to the Seversky Donets.

A close union of the Crimean Khanate and Russian lands was maturing, which was clearly undesirable for both Lithuania and Poland. The Principality of Kiev was turning into an all-Russian state with a tendency towards independence. Lithuania and Poland could not put up with this. Therefore, after the death of Semyon Olelkovich in 1470, the Lithuanian rulers refused to satisfy the request of the people of Kiev to recognize Mikhail, the brother of the deceased, as prince, and sent the governor Martin Gashtovt to Kyiv. This meant the complete liquidation of the Kyiv principality and its reduction to the state of an ordinary Lithuanian province, which the Kiev nobility was not going to put up with; twice they did not allow Gashtovt to enter Kyiv, and only the third time the governor seized the city by force in 1471. The Russian public regarded the liquidation of the Kyiv principality as a humiliation of national dignity, the removal of the local nobility from power, and complained for a long time at the time when Lithuania paid tribute to Kyiv with birch brooms for its poverty.

After the Mongol invasion, economic recovery gradually began in the country, which urgently required strengthening trends towards unifying the lands into a single centralized state. Prerequisites for the centralization process in Rus' can be divided into four groups: 1) uh economic(increasing agricultural productivity, strengthening the commercial nature of crafts, increasing the number of cities, developing economic ties between individual lands); 2) social(the need of the feudal class for strong state power, the need of peasants for centralized power for protection from many feudal lords, intensification of social struggle); 3) political(the need to overthrow Mongol rule, the expediency of centralized protection of Russian lands from external enemies, the desire of the Orthodox Church for centralized power in order to strengthen itself); 4) spiritual(commonality of the Christian religion of the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian peoples, commonality of culture, customs, traditions).

In the XIV century. in North-Eastern Rus' a number of large feudal centers emerged - Tver, Moscow, Gorodets, Starodub, Suzdal, etc. The struggle of their rulers for the great reign of Vladimir subjectively did not yet go beyond the framework of feudal strife, but objectively it became the beginning of the unification process, since in it a political center emerged that was to lead this process. The main rivals in this struggle were Tver and Moscow. Of all the diverse appanage rulers of Rus', only the Moscow princes slowly but purposefully gathered Russian lands under their rule. They began successfully collecting lands during the heyday of the Golden Horde and ended after its collapse. The rise of the Moscow Principality was facilitated by a number of factors. The advantages of its geographical location made Moscow, during the years of foreign rule, the center of the grain trade of Rus'. This provided its princes with an influx of funds, with which they bought labels for the great reign of Vladimir, expanded their own territories, attracted settlers, and gathered boyars under their control. The strong economic position of the Moscow princes allowed them to become leaders of the all-Russian struggle against the conquerors. The most important role was played by a personal factor - the political talent of the descendants of Alexander Nevsky.

In its formation, the Moscow Principality went through four stages. First stage(last third of the 13th – beginning of the 14th centuries) was marked by the actual birth of the principality and its first experiments in expanding the territory. Initially, the Moscow princes relied exclusively on Tatar support, and later on growing military strength and prestige. First of all, the population came and settled in Moscow in search of a quiet life. From the west it was covered by the Smolensk principality, from the north-west by Tver, from the east by Nizhny Novgorod, and from the southeast by Ryazan. In parallel with territorial expansion and economic growth, power was concentrated in the hands of the Moscow princes.

Second period(XIV century) was characterized by the struggle for primacy and Tver and was distinguished by the names of two outstanding political figures - Ivan I Danilovich (nicknamed Kalita) (1325–1340) and his grandson Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1363–1389). Ivan Kalita was able to achieve a stable championship in the fight against Tver. As a reward for suppressing the Tver anti-Horde rebellion, Ivan Kalita received from the khan a label for the great reign of Vladimir, which he and his sons held without interruption. Ivan Kalita also secured the right to collect tribute, which the Mongols entrusted to the Vladimir princes. This became one of the sources of enrichment for the Moscow Principality. By the end of the reign of Ivan I, it became the strongest, and Moscow from a small secondary city turned into an all-Russian political center. The Moscow-Tver internecine war of 1375, which ultimately ended in the victory of Dmitry, forced the Tver residents to finally recognize the Vladimir table as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes. From that time on, Moscow began to represent all-Russian interests in relations with the Horde and Lithuania.

On third stage(late XIV - mid-XV centuries), under Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389–1425), the process of transforming the great Vladimir-Moscow principality into a single Russian state began. Gradually, the former appanage principalities turned into counties governed by grand-ducal governors. The leadership of the united armed forces of the Russian lands was concentrated in the hands of Vasily I. However, the centralization process has become significantly more complicated feudal war 1430–1450s The victory of Vasily II the Dark (1425–1462) over his political opponents - the Galician princes - became the triumph of a new political order with strong elements of centralization. Now the struggle was not for political primacy between several contenders, but for the possession of Moscow. During the feudal war, the Tver princes adhered to neutral positions and did not seek to use the situation within the Moscow principality to their advantage. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow state increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century.

Fourth stage(mid-15th – second quarter of the 16th centuries) became the final stage in the process of unification of Rus' and the formation of the state of Muscovy under the rule of Ivan III (1462–1505) and his son Vasily III (1505–1533). They, unlike their predecessors, no longer waged wars in order to increase the territory of their principality. Already by the 1480s. The independence of a number of the most important Russian principalities and feudal republics was liquidated. The unification of Rus' meant the formation of a single territory, the restructuring of the entire political system, and the establishment of a centralized monarchy. The process of eliminating the “specific orders” took a long time, stretching over the second half of the 14th century, but the 1480s became a turning point. This period was characterized by the reorganization of the administrative system, the development of feudal law (drafting Sudebnik ), improving the armed forces of the state, creating a new form of feudal ownership of land - local system, the formation of the ranks of the service nobility, the final liberation of Rus' from Horde rule.

The unification of Russian lands within a single state did not lead to the immediate disappearance of numerous remnants of feudal fragmentation. However, the needs of centralization dictated the need to transform outdated institutions. The strengthened power of the Moscow sovereigns turned into autocratic, but did not become unlimited. When passing laws or resolving issues important to the state, the political formula played a huge role: “the prince indicated, the boyars sentenced.” Through the Boyar Duma, the nobility managed affairs not only in the center, but also locally (the boyars received "feeding" largest cities and counties in the country).

Ivan III began to bear the pompous title of “Sovereign of All Rus'”, and in relations with other countries - “Tsar of All Rus'”. Under him, the Greek word “Russia”, the Byzantine name for Rus', came into wide use. From the end of the 15th century. the Byzantine coat of arms appeared on Russian state seals - double headed eagle in combination with the old Moscow coat of arms with the image of St. George the Victorious.

Under Ivan III, the state apparatus began to take shape, which later became the basis for the formation estate-representative monarchy (→ 3.1). Its highest level was the Boyar Duma - an advisory body under the prince, as well as two national departments that performed many functions at once - Coffers And Castle. The local government system remained largely outdated. The country was divided into counties, whose borders ran along the boundaries of former appanages, and therefore their territories were unequal in size. Counties were divided into camps and volosts. They were led by governors(counties) and volosteli(countries, volosts), which received the right to collect court fees in their favor ( award) and part of taxes ( feeding income). Since feeding was not a reward for administrative service, but for former military service ( localism ), feeders often entrusted their duties to their slaves - tiuns.

Thus, the specifics of the political centralization of the Russian lands determined the features of the Moscow state: strong grand-ducal power, strict dependence of the ruling class on it, a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry, which over time was transformed into serfdom. Due to these features, the ideology of Russian monarchism gradually emerged, the main tenets of which were the idea of ​​Moscow as the third Rome, as well as the idea of ​​the absolute unity of the autocracy and the Orthodox Church.