Byzantium in the 5th century. What kind of country is Byzantium now?

Which state does Byzantium belong to now? and got the best answer

Answer from KK[expert]
They already told you that this is Türkiye, now it is Istanbul

Answer from V@ёk Franchetti[expert]
At the very height of the empire, the following territories belonged to and were subject to Byzantium:
Balkan Peninsula (Greece, Serbia...)
Türkiye
Armenia
Georgia
Egypt
Krasnodar region
Coast of Ukraine
Bulgaria and Romania
Israel
Libya
Azerbaijan
part of Iran
Iraq
Syria
Jordan
Cyprus
part of Sudova Arabia

Answer from Kuban Ball[newbie]
Geographically - Türkiye, Culturally - Greece

Answer from Pronichkin Vladimir[newbie]
Türkiye

Answer from Nikolai Andryushevich[newbie]
Thank you

Answer from Svetlana Dzhekspaeva[newbie]
But what if I still don’t understand Byzantium, huh?

Answer from Yeomyon Sudarenko[newbie]
This question is not asked entirely correctly, because at the peak of its power, Byzantium covered vast territories, and its cultural heritage had a great influence on many peoples and states. It is noteworthy that Byzantium itself was a direct continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, the heirs of which many more states called themselves (from the Franks of Charlemagne to the Italians of Benito Mussolini), often without having any rights to do so.
As for Byzantium itself, it should be noted that it had no fewer heirs than the great Roman Empire, and many of them appeared even before its destruction (often, these were Romanized peoples, for example, the “Serbo-Gean kingdom” that existed since 13th to 15th centuries), but we will consider only the most legitimate of them. Many consider modern Greece to be a direct continuation of the medieval Greek state (the very appearance of which was directly related to the idea of ​​​​restoring the Byzantine Empire with its center in Constantinople). Also, the Russian Principality of Moscow laid claim to the role of heir to Byzantium. This idea originated under Prince Ivan III (Moscow - the third Rome) and was directly associated with the Byzantines’ adoption of Catholicism, and then with the fall of Constantinople (1453). To strengthen his rights to the Roman throne, the Russian prince married the Byzantine princess Zoe Palaeologus, and also tried to annex the Principality of Theodoro in Crimea to his possessions (but the capture of the peninsula by the Turks prevented this from happening).
And now about Turkey - the answer from user "KK" was recognized as the best, but the question is: why? Not only is it incorrect, it is also unsubstantiated and illiterate. Turkey (or more precisely, the Ottoman Empire) is the state that destroyed Byzantium (the barbaric sack of Constantinople in 1453), rejected its culture and appropriated many of the achievements of the Byzantines in the field of science, art, etc. To call Turkey the heir of Byzantium is tantamount to to name France of Napoleon I the successor of the Russian Empire (the French also captured the capital of our state in 1812).

Answer from Anne[guru]
What do many people write about Istanbul here? Istanbul is a CITY! And Byzantium is a state. It occupied almost all of Europe and part of Africa. Including Turkey. Byzantium is the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople (now Istanbul) is the capital. It included the cities: Alexandria (this is in Egypt), Antioch, Trebizond, Thessaloniki, Iconium, Nicaea... Well, since the capital was Constantinople, and now it is called Istanbul, then now Byzantium is Turkey. In general, these are several current states, judging by the territory of that Byzantium...

Answer from Anna[guru]
Byzantium is the eastern part of the Roman Empire... Constantinople fell in 1453 to the Turks... now it is Turkey, the capital is Istanbul. you need to know such basic things...

Answer from User deleted[expert]
Well, how can you not know? ! Naturally this is Istanbul in Turkey!! First it was Byzantium, then Constantinople, and now... Istanbul! It's simple!!

Answer from User deleted[newbie]
Türkiye, Türkiye, Türkiye...

Answer from Yotepanova Oksana[active]
Byzantium - Constantinople - Istanbul, and the country is now Türkiye! The city is located on both banks of the Bosphorus Strait

Answer from Asenn[guru]
The question was asked a little incorrectly, because there was the state of Byzantium and the city of Byzantium.
Byzantine Empire, Byzantium (Greek Βασιλεία Ρωμαίων - Roman Empire, 476-1453) - a medieval state, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire. The name “Byzantine Empire” (after the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the Roman Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople at the beginning of the 4th century) was given to the state in the works of Western European historians after its fall. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek “Romeans”, and their power - “Romean”. Western sources also call the Byzantine Empire "Romania" (Ρωμανία in Greek). For much of its history, many of its Western contemporaries referred to it as the "Empire of the Greeks" due to the dominance of its Greek population and culture. In ancient Rus' it was also usually called the “Greek Kingdom”, and its capital “Constantinople”.

Byzantine Empire, 476-1453
The capital of Byzantium throughout its history was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the then world. The empire controlled the largest territories under Emperor Justinian I. From that time on, it gradually lost land under the onslaught of barbarian kingdoms and Eastern European tribes. After the Arab conquests, it occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some strengthening in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses, the collapse of the country under the attacks of the crusaders and death under the onslaught of the Seljuk Turks and Ottoman Turks.

Byzantium

Byzantine Empire, a state that arose in the 4th century. during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part and existed until the mid-15th century. The capital of Byzantium was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine I in 324-330 on the site of the former Megarian colony of Byzantium (hence the name of the state, introduced by humanists after the fall of the empire). In fact, with the founding of Constantinople, the isolation of Vietnam began in the depths of the Roman Empire (from this time the history of Vietnam is usually traced). The completion of separation is considered to be 395, when, after the death of the last emperor of the unified Roman power, Theodosius I (reigned 379-395), the final division of the Roman Empire into the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) and Western Roman Empires took place. Arcadius (395-408) became Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek “Romeans”, and their state “Romean”. Throughout Vietnam's existence, its territory underwent repeated changes (see map).

The ethnic composition of the population of Vietnam was varied: Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, and Dacians. With the reduction of the territory of Europe (from the 7th century), some peoples remained outside the borders of Europe. At the same time, new peoples settled on the territory of Europe (Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, Arabs in the 7th-7th centuries). 9th centuries, Pechenegs, Cumans in the 11th-13th centuries, etc.). From 6th to 11th centuries The population of Britain included ethnic groups from which the Italian nation was later formed. The Greek population played a predominant role in the economy, political life and culture of Vietnam. The official language of the empire in the 4th-6th centuries. - Latin, from the 7th century. until the end of V.'s existence - Greek. Many problems of the socio-economic history of Byzantium are complex and there are different concepts in solving them in Soviet Byzantine studies. For example, in determining the time of Vietnam's transition from slaveholding to feudal relations. According to N.V. Pigulevskaya and E.E. Lipshits, in V. 4-6 centuries. slavery has already lost its meaning; according to the concept of Z. V. Udaltsova (which in this matter is shared by A. P. Kazhdan), until the 6-7 centuries. Slavery dominated in Vietnam (generally agreeing with this point of view, M. Ya. Syuzyumov considers the period between the 4th and 11th centuries as “pre-feudal”).

In the history of Vietnam, approximately 3 main periods can be distinguished. The first period (4th - mid-7th centuries) is characterized by the decomposition of the slave system and the beginning of the formation of feudal relations. A distinctive feature of the beginning of the genesis of feudalism in Britain was the spontaneous development of the feudal system within the decaying slave society, in the conditions of the preservation of the late antique state. Features of agrarian relations in early Vietnam include the preservation of significant masses of the free peasantry and peasant communities, the widespread use of kolonata and long-term leases (emphyteusis), and the distribution of plots of land to slaves in the form of peculia, more intensive than in the West. In the 7th century. In the Byzantine countryside, large slave-owning landholdings were undermined and in some places destroyed. The dominance of the peasant community was established on the territory of the former estates. At the end of the 1st period, on the surviving large estates (mainly in Asia Minor), the labor of colons and slaves began to be replaced by the increasingly widely used labor of free peasant tenants.

Byzantine city 4-5 centuries. basically remained the ancient slaveholding Polis; but from the end of the 4th century. there was a decline in small policies, their agrarianization, and those that arose in the 5th century. new cities were no longer policies, but trade, craft and administrative centers. The largest city in the empire was Constantinople, a center of crafts and international trade. Vietnam conducted brisk trade with Iran, India, China, and others; In trade with Western European states along the Mediterranean Sea, Britain had hegemony. In terms of the level of development of crafts and trade, and the degree of intensity of urban life, Vietnam during this period was ahead of the countries of Western Europe. In the 7th century, however, city-polises finally fell into decline, a significant part of the cities underwent agrarianization, and the center of public life moved to the countryside.

B. 4-5 centuries was a centralized military-bureaucratic monarchy. All power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor (basileus). The advisory body under the emperor was the Senate. The entire free population was divided into classes. The highest class was the senatorial class. They became a serious social force in the 5th century. unique political parties - dimas, the most important of which were the Venets (headed by high-ranking nobility) and Prasins (reflecting the interests of the trade and craft elite) (see Venets and Prasins). From the 4th century Christianity became the dominant religion (in 354, 392 the government issued laws against paganism). In the 4th-7th centuries. Christian dogma was developed, and a church hierarchy was formed. From the end of the 4th century. monasteries began to emerge. The church became a wealthy organization with numerous land holdings. The clergy was exempt from paying taxes and duties (with the exception of land tax). As a result of the struggle between various currents in Christianity (Arianism (See Arianism), Nestorianism (See Nestorianism), etc.), Orthodoxy became dominant in Britain (finally in the 6th century under Emperor Justinian I, but still at the end of the 4th century the emperor Theodosius I tried to restore church unity and turn Constantinople into the center of Orthodoxy).

Since the 70s 4th century not only the foreign policy, but also the internal political situation of Vietnam was largely determined by the empire’s relations with the barbarians (See Barbarians). In 375, with the forced consent of Emperor Valens, the Visigoths settled in the territory of the empire (south of the Danube). In 376, the Visigoths, outraged by the oppression of the Byzantine authorities, rebelled. In 378, the united troops of the Visigoths and parts of the rebel population of the empire completely defeated the army of Emperor Valens at Adrianople. With great difficulty (at the cost of concessions to the barbarian nobility), Emperor Theodosius managed to suppress the uprising in 380. In July 400, the barbarians almost captured Constantinople, and only thanks to the intervention of broad sections of the townspeople in the struggle were they expelled from the city. By the end of the 4th century. with the increase in the number of mercenaries and federates, the Byzantine army became barbarized; temporarily, due to the settlements of the barbarians, small free land ownership and kolonat expanded. While the Western Roman Empire, which was experiencing a deep crisis, fell under the blows of the barbarians, Britain (where the crisis of the slave economy was weaker, where cities remained as centers of craft and trade and a powerful apparatus of power) turned out to be economically and politically more viable, which allowed it resist barbarian invasions. In the 70-80s. 5th century V. repelled the onslaught of the Ostrogoths (See Ostrogoths).

At the end of the 5th-6th centuries. economic recovery and some political stabilization of Vietnam began. A financial reform was carried out in the interests of the trade and craft elite of large cities of Vietnam, primarily Constantinople (the abolition of the chrysargir - a tax levied on the urban population, the transfer of tax collection by the state to tax farmers, the collection of land taxes in money and etc.). Social discontent among the broad plebeian masses led to an intensification of the struggle between the Veneti and the Prasin. In the eastern provinces of Britain, the oppositional religious movement of the Monophysites (see Monophysites) intensified, in which the ethnic, church, social, and political interests of various segments of the population of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine were intertwined. At the end of the 5th - beginning of the 6th centuries. Slavic tribes began to invade Eastern territory from the north across the Danube (493, 499, 502). During the reign of Emperor Justinian I (See Justinian I) (527-565), Vietnam reached the apogee of its political and military power. Justinian's main goals were to restore the unity of the Roman Empire and strengthen the power of a single emperor. In his policy, he relied on wide circles of medium and small landowners and slave owners, limited the claims of the senatorial aristocracy; At the same time he achieved an alliance with the Orthodox Church. The first years of Justinian's reign were marked by major popular movements (529-530 - the Samaritan uprising in Palestine, 532 - the Nika uprising in Constantinople). Justinian's government carried out the codification of civil law (see Codification of Justinian, Digest, Institutes). Justinian's legislation, aimed largely at strengthening slaveholding relations, reflected at the same time the changes that had taken place in the social life of Britain, promoted the unification of forms of ownership, leveled the civil rights of the population, established a new order of inheritance, and forced heretics to convert to Orthodoxy under the threat of deprivation of civil rights. rights and even the death penalty. During the reign of Justinian, the centralization of the state increased, and a strong army was created. This enabled Justinian to repel the onslaught of the Persians in the east, the Slavs in the north and carry out extensive conquests in the west (in 533-534 - the Vandal states in North Africa, in 535-555 - the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, in 554 - the south-eastern regions of Spain) . However, Justinian's conquests turned out to be fragile; in the western regions conquered from the barbarians, the dominance of the Byzantines, their restoration of slavery and the Roman tax system caused uprisings of the population [the uprising that broke out in the army in 602 escalated into a civil war and led to a change of emperors - the centurion (centurion) Phocas took the throne]. At the end of the 6th-7th centuries. Vietnam lost the conquered regions in the West (with the exception of Southern Italy). In 636-642, the Arabs conquered the richest eastern provinces of Turkey (Syria, Palestine, Upper Mesopotamia), and in 693-698 - its possessions in North Africa. By the end of the 7th century. V.'s territory accounted for no more than 1/3 of Justinian's empire. From the end of the 6th century. the settlement of the Balkan Peninsula by Slavic tribes began. In the 7th century. they settled over a large territory within the Byzantine Empire (in Moesia, Thrace, Macedonia, Dalmatia, Istria, part of Greece, and were even resettled in Asia Minor), however, retaining their language, way of life, and culture. The ethnic composition of the population also changed in the eastern part of Asia Minor: settlements of Armenians, Persians, Syrians, and Arabs appeared. However, in general, with the loss of part of the eastern provinces, Vietnam became ethnically more unified; its core consisted of lands inhabited by Greeks or Hellenized tribes who spoke Greek.

The second period (mid 7th - early 13th centuries) is characterized by the intensive development of feudalism. As a result of the decrease in territory at the beginning of this period, Europe was predominantly Greek, and in the 11th-12th centuries. (when it temporarily included Slavic lands) - a Greco-Slavic state. Despite the territorial losses, Vietnam remained one of the most powerful powers in the Mediterranean. In a Byzantine village in the 8th-1st half of the 9th centuries. The free rural community became predominant: the communal relations of the Slavic tribes who settled in Byzantium also contributed to the strengthening of local Byzantine peasant communities. Legislative monument of the 8th century. The agricultural law testifies to the presence of neighboring communities, and to the property differentiation within them, to the beginning of their decomposition. Byzantine cities in the 8th-1st half of the 9th centuries. continued to experience decline. In the 7th-8th centuries. In V. there were important changes in the administrative structure. The old dioceses and provinces are replaced by new military-administrative districts - themes (See themes). The entirety of military and civil power in the theme was concentrated in the hands of the commander of the theme army - the strategist. The free peasants who made up the army - stratiots - for performing military service were enrolled by the government in the category of hereditary holders of military land plots. The creation of the feminine system essentially marked the decentralization of the state. At the same time, it strengthened the military potential of the empire and made it possible, during the reigns of Leo III (See Leo) (717-741) and Constantine V (741-775), to achieve success in the wars with the Arabs and Bulgarians. The policy of Leo III was aimed at combating the separatist tendencies of the local nobility (publication of the legislative collection Eclogue in 726, disaggregation of femes), and limiting the self-government of cities. In the 8th-1st half of the 9th centuries. A broad religious and political movement began in Britain - Iconoclasm (reflecting mainly the protest of the popular masses against the ruling church, closely associated with the Constantinople dignitaries), which was used by the provincial nobility in their own interests. The movement was led by the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty (See Isaurian dynasty), who, during the fight against icon veneration, confiscated monastic and church treasures for the benefit of the treasury. The struggle between iconoclasts and icon-worshippers unfolded with particular force during the reign of Emperor Constantine V. In 754, Constantine V convened a church council that condemned the veneration of icons. The policies of the iconoclast emperors strengthened the provincial nobility. The growth of large landownership and the attack of the feudal lords on the peasant community led to an intensification of the class struggle. In the middle of the 7th century. in the east of the Byzantine Empire in Western Armenia, the popular heretical movement of the Paulicians arose (See Paulicians), which spread in the 8th-9th centuries. in Asia Minor. Another major popular movement in the 9th century. - uprising 820-825 of Thomas the Slav (See Thomas the Slav) (died in 823), which covered the Asia Minor territory of the empire, part of Thrace and Macedonia and from the very beginning had an anti-feudal orientation. The aggravation of the class struggle frightened the feudal class, forced it to overcome the split in its ranks and restore icon veneration in 843. The reconciliation of the government and military nobility with the higher clergy and monasticism was accompanied by brutal persecution of the Paulicians. The Paulician movement, which resulted in the mid-9th century. into an armed uprising, it was suppressed in 872.

2nd half. 9th-10th centuries - the period of creation in Britain of a centralized feudal monarchy with strong state power and an extensive bureaucratic administrative apparatus. One of the main forms of exploitation of peasants in these centuries was centralized rent, levied in the form of numerous taxes. The presence of a strong central government largely explains the absence of a feudal-hierarchical ladder in Vietnam. Unlike Western European states, in Britain the vassal-feudal system remained undeveloped; feudal squads were more likely to be detachments of bodyguards and retinues than an army of vassals of the feudal magnate. Two layers of the ruling class played a major role in the political life of the country: large feudal lords (dinats) in the provinces and the official aristocracy associated with trade and craft circles in Constantinople. These social groups, constantly competing, replaced each other in power. By the 11th century. Feudal relations in Vietnam basically became dominant. The defeat of popular movements made it easier for the feudal lords to attack the free peasant community. The impoverishment of peasants and military settlers (stratiotes) led to the decline of the stratiot militia and reduced the solvency of peasants, the main tax payers. Attempts by some emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (See Macedonian dynasty) (867-1056), relying on the bureaucratic nobility and trade and craft circles of Constantinople, interested in receiving taxes from the peasants, were not successful in delaying the processes of landlessness among the community members, the disintegration of the peasant community and the formation of feudal estates. In the 11th-12th centuries. In Britain, the formation of the basic institutions of feudalism was completed. A patrimonial form of exploitation of peasants is maturing. The free community was preserved only on the outskirts of the empire; the peasants turned into feudal-dependent people (wigs). Slave labor in agriculture lost its importance. In the 11th-12th centuries. Pronia (a form of conditional feudal land tenure) gradually spread. The government distributed the rights of excussion to the feudal lords (See Excussion) (a special form of immunity). The specificity of feudalism in Vietnam was the combination of seigneurial exploitation of dependent peasants with the collection of centralized rent in favor of the state.

From the 2nd half of the 9th century. The rise of Byzantine cities began. The development of crafts was associated mainly with the increased demand for handicraft products of the strengthened Byzantine feudal nobility and with the growth of foreign trade. The flourishing of cities was facilitated by the policies of the emperors (providing benefits to trade and craft corporations, etc.). Byzantine city by the 10th century. acquired features characteristic of medieval cities: small craft production, the formation of trade and craft corporations, regulation of their activities by the state. A specific feature of the Byzantine city was the preservation of the institution of slavery, although the main figure in production was the free artisan. From the 10th-11th centuries. for the most part, Byzantine cities were not only fortresses, administrative or episcopal centers; they become the center of crafts and trade. Constantinople until the middle of the 12th century. remained a center of transit trade between East and West. Byzantine navigation and trade, despite competition from the Arabs and Normans, still played a major role in the Mediterranean basin. In the 12th century changes occurred in the economy of Byzantine cities. Craft production decreased somewhat and production technology in Constantinople decreased, at the same time there was a rise in provincial cities - Thessalonica, Corinth, Thebes, Athens, Ephesus, Nicaea, etc. The penetration of Venetians and Genoese into Europe, who received from Byzantine emperors had significant trade privileges. State regulation of the activities of trade and craft corporations hindered the development of Byzantine (especially capital) crafts.

In the 2nd half of the 9th century. The influence of the church increased. The Byzantine Church, usually submissive to emperors, under Patriarch Photius (858-867) began to defend the idea of ​​equality of spiritual and temporal power and called for the active Christianization of neighboring peoples with the help of church missions; tried to introduce Orthodoxy in Moravia, using the mission of Cyril and Methodius (See Cyril and Methodius), carried out the Christianization of Bulgaria (about 865). Disagreements between the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the papal throne, which worsened under Patriarch Photius, led in 1054 to an official break (schism) between the Eastern and Western churches [from that time on, the Eastern Church began to be called Greek-Catholic (Orthodox), and the Western - Roman Catholic]. However, the final Division of the Churches occurred after 1204.

Foreign policy of Vietnam in the 2nd half of the 9th-11th centuries. characterized by constant wars with the Arabs, Slavs, and later with the Normans. In the middle of the 10th century. V. conquered Upper Mesopotamia, part of Asia Minor and Syria, Crete and Cyprus from the Arabs. In 1018 V. conquered the Western Bulgarian kingdom. The Balkan Peninsula up to the Danube was subordinated to the power of Great Britain. In the 9th-11th centuries. Relations with Kievan Rus began to play a large role in Vietnam’s foreign policy. After the siege of Constantinople by the troops of the Kiev prince Oleg (907), the Byzantines were forced to conclude a trade agreement beneficial for the Russians in 911, which contributed to the development of trade relations between Rus' and Vietnam along the great route from the “Varangians to the Greeks” (See The path from the Varangians to the Greeks). In the last third of the 10th century. V. entered into the fight with Russia for Bulgaria; despite the initial successes of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich (See Svyatoslav Igorevich), the victory was won. An alliance was concluded between Europe and Kievan Rus under the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (See Vladimir Svyatoslavich), the Russians helped the Byzantine emperor Vasily II suppress the feudal rebellion of Phocas Varda (See Foca Varda) (987-989), and Vasily II was forced to agree to the marriage of his sister Anna with the Kiev prince Vladimir, which contributed to the rapprochement of Vladimir with Russia. At the end of the 10th century. In Rus', Christianity was adopted from V. (according to the Orthodox rite).

From the 2nd third to the beginning of the 80s. 11th century V. was going through a period of crisis, the state was shaken by “turmoil”, the struggle of provincial feudal lords against the capital’s nobility and officials [the feudal revolts of Maniak (1043), Tornik (1047), Isaac Komnenos (1057), who temporarily seized the throne (1057-1059)]. The foreign policy situation of the empire also worsened: the Byzantine government had to simultaneously repel the onslaught of the Pechenegs (See Pechenegs) and the Seljuk Turks (See Seljuks). After the defeat of the Byzantine army by Seljuk troops in 1071 at Manazkert (in Armenia), Vietnam lost most of Asia Minor. Vietnam suffered no less heavy losses in the West. By the middle of the 11th century. The Normans captured most of the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy, and in 1071 they captured the last stronghold of the Byzantines - the city of Bari (in Apulia).

The struggle for the throne, which intensified in the 70s. The 11th century ended in 1081 with the victory of the Komnenos dynasty (See Komnenos) (1081-1185), which expressed the interests of the provincial feudal aristocracy and relied on a narrow layer of nobility connected with it by family ties. The Komnenos broke with the old bureaucratic system of government and introduced a new system of titles, which were assigned only to the highest nobility. Power in the provinces was transferred to military commanders (ducas). Under the Comnenians, instead of the people's militia of the stratiots, whose importance fell back in the 10th century, the main role began to be played by heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts), close to Western European knighthood, and mercenary troops from foreigners. The strengthening of the state and army allowed the Komnenos to achieve success in the late 11th and early 12th centuries. in foreign policy (repel the Norman offensive in the Balkans, conquer a significant part of Asia Minor from the Seljuks, establish sovereignty over Antioch). Manuel I forced Hungary to recognize the sovereignty of Hungary (1164) and established his power in Serbia. But in 1176 the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks at Myriokephalon. At all borders, Vietnam was forced to go on the defensive. After the death of Manuel I, a popular uprising broke out in Constantinople (1181), caused by dissatisfaction with the policies of the government, which patronized Italian merchants, as well as Western European knights who entered the service of the emperors. Taking advantage of the uprising, Andronikos I (1183-85), a representative of the side branch of the Comneni, came to power. The reforms of Andronikos I were aimed at streamlining the state bureaucracy and fighting corruption. Failures in the war with the Normans, dissatisfaction among the townspeople with the trade privileges granted by the emperor to the Venetians, and terror against the highest feudal nobility pushed even his former allies away from Andronikos I. In 1185, as a result of the rebellion of the nobility of Constantinople, the dynasty of Angels (See Angels) (1185-1204) came to power, whose reign marked the decline of the internal and external power of V. The country was experiencing a deep economic crisis: feudal fragmentation and the virtual independence of provincial rulers from the central government intensified , the cities fell into decay, the army and navy weakened. The collapse of the empire began. In 1187 Bulgaria fell away; in 1190 V. was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia. At the end of the 12th century. the contradictions between Britain and the West intensified: the papacy sought to subordinate the Byzantine church to the Roman curia; Venice sought to be ousted from V. their competitors - Genoa and Pisa; the emperors of the “Holy Roman Empire” hatched plans to subjugate Britain. As a result of the interweaving of all these political interests, the direction (instead of Palestine - to Constantinople) of the 4th Crusade (See Crusades) (1202-04) changed. In 1204, Constantinople fell under the attacks of the crusaders, and the Byzantine Empire ceased to exist.

The third period (1204-1453) is characterized by a further increase in feudal fragmentation, the decline of central power and a constant struggle with foreign conquerors; elements of the disintegration of the feudal economy appear. On the part of the territory of Vietnam conquered by the crusaders, the Latin Empire (1204-61) was founded. The Latins suppressed Greek culture in Byzantium, and the dominance of Italian traders prevented the revival of Byzantine cities. Due to the resistance of the local population, the crusaders were unable to extend their power to the entire Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. Independent Greek states arose on the territory of Britain that they had not conquered: the Nicaean Empire (1204-61), the Empire of Trebizond (1204-1461) and the Epirus state (1204-1337).

The Nicene Empire played a leading role in the fight against the Latin Empire. In 1261, the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, with the support of the Greek population of the Latin Empire, recaptured Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire. The Palaiologan dynasty strengthened on the throne (See Palaiologi) (1261-1453). In the last period of its existence, Vietnam was a small feudal state. The Empire of Trebizond (until the end of Vietnam) and the Epirus state (until it was annexed to Vietnam in 1337) remained independent. Feudal relations continued to dominate in Britain during this period; Under the conditions of the undivided domination of large feudal lords in Byzantine cities, Italian economic dominance, and the Turkish military threat (from the late 13th to early 14th centuries), the sprouts of early capitalist relations (for example, entrepreneurial-type rent in the countryside) in Vietnam quickly died. The intensification of feudal exploitation caused popular movements in the countryside and in the city. In 1262 there was an uprising of the Bithynian Akrites - border military settlers in Asia Minor. In the 40s 14th century During the period of intense struggle between two feudal cliques for the throne (supporters of the Palaiologos and Cantacuzenes (See Cantacuzenes)), anti-feudal uprisings swept Thrace and Macedonia. A feature of the class struggle of the masses of this period was the unification of the actions of the urban and rural population against the feudal lords. The popular movement unfolded with particular force in Thessalonica, where the uprising was led by the Zealots (1342-49). The victory of the feudal reaction and constant feudal civil strife weakened Vietnam, which was unable to resist the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks. At the beginning of the 14th century. they captured the Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor, in 1354 - Gallipoli, in 1362 - Adrianople (where the Sultan moved his capital in 1365) and then captured all of Thrace. After the defeat of the Serbs at Maritsa (1371), Vietnam, following Serbia, recognized vassal dependence on the Turks. The defeat of the Turks by the troops of the Central Asian commander Timur in 1402 at the Battle of Ankara delayed the death of V. for several decades. In this situation, the Byzantine government sought in vain the support of Western European countries. The union between the Orthodox and Catholic churches concluded in 1439 at the Council of Florence on the condition of recognition of the primacy of the papal throne did not provide any real help (the union was rejected by the Byzantine people). The Turks resumed their attack on Vietnam. The economic decline of Vietnam, the aggravation of class contradictions, feudal strife, and the self-interested policies of Western European states facilitated the victory of the Ottoman Turks. After a two-month siege, on May 29, 1453, Constantinople was stormed by the Turkish army and plundered. In 1460 the conquerors conquered the Morea, and in 1461 they captured the Trebizond Empire. By the beginning of the 60s. 15th century The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, its territory became part of the Ottoman Empire.

Lit.: Levchenko M.V., History of Byzantium. Brief essay, M. - L., 1940; Syuzyumov M. Ya., Byzantium, in the book: Soviet Historical Encyclopedia, vol. 3, M., 1963; History of Byzantium, vol. 1-3, M., 1967; Pigulevskaya N.V., Byzantium on the routes to India, M. - L., 1951; hers, Arabs at the borders of Byzantium and Iran in the IV-VI centuries, M. - L., 1964; Udaltsova Z.V., Italy and Byzantium in the 6th century, M., 1959; Lipshits E. E., Essays on the history of Byzantine society and culture. VIII - first half. IX century, M. - L., 1961; Kazhdan A.P., Village and city in Byzantium in the 9th-10th centuries, M., 1960; Goryanov B. T., Late Byzantine feudalism, M., 1962; Levchenko M.V., Essays on the history of Russian-Byzantine relations, M., 1956; Litavrin G., Bulgaria and Byzantium in the XI-XII centuries, M., 1960; Bréhier L., Le monde byzantin, I-3, P., 1947-50; Angelov D., History of Byzantium, 2nd ed., parts 1-3, Sofia, 1959-67; Cambridge medieval history, v. 4, pt 1-2, Camb., 1966-67; Kirsten E., Die byzantinische Stadt, in: Berichte zum XI. Byzantinisten-Kongress, München, 1958: Treitinger O., Die Oströmische Kaiser-und Reichsidee, 2 Aufl., Darmstadt, 1956; Bury J., The imperial administrative system in the ninth century, 2 ed., N. Y., 1958; Dölger F., Beiträge zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Fi-nanzverwaltung, Münch., 1960; Ostrogorski G., Istorija Byzantije, Beograd, .

Z. V. Udaltsova.

Byzantine culture. The peculiarities of the culture of Vietnam are largely explained by the fact that Vietnam did not experience the radical breakdown of the political system that Western Europe experienced, and the influence of the barbarians was less significant here. Byzantine culture developed under the influence of Roman, Greek and eastern (Hellenistic) traditions. It took shape (like the medieval Western European) as Christian: in the most important areas of culture, all the most significant ideas about the world, and often every significant thought, were clothed in the images of Christian mythology, in traditional phraseology drawn from the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the church fathers (See. Church Fathers). Based on Christian doctrine (which viewed man’s earthly existence as a short episode on the threshold of eternal life, which put forward as the main life task of man the preparation for death, which was considered as the beginning of life in eternity), Byzantine society defined ethical values, which, however, remained abstract ideals. and not guidance in practical activity: neglect of earthly goods, assessment of work mainly as a means of discipline and self-abasement, and not as a process of creation and creativity (since earthly goods are fleeting and insignificant). Humility and piety, a sense of one's own sinfulness and asceticism were considered by the Byzantines as the highest Christian values; They also largely determined the artistic ideal. Traditionalism, generally characteristic of the Christian worldview, turned out to be especially strong in Britain (where the state itself was interpreted as a direct continuation of the Roman Empire and where the language of written culture remained predominantly the Greek language of the Hellenistic era). This resulted in admiration for book authority. The Bible and, to a certain extent, the ancient classics were regarded as the body of necessary knowledge. Tradition, not experience, was proclaimed the source of knowledge, because tradition, according to Byzantine ideas, went back to the essence, while experience introduced only the superficial phenomena of the earthly world. Experiments and scientific observation were extremely rare in Vietnam, the criterion of reliability was undeveloped, and many legendary news were perceived as genuine. Something new, not supported by book authority, was seen as rebellious. Byzantine culture is characterized by a desire for systematization with a lack of interest in the analytical consideration of phenomena [which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and in V. aggravated by the influence of Greek classical philosophy (especially Aristotle) ​​with its tendency to classification] and the desire to reveal the “true” (mystical) meaning of phenomena [arising on the basis of the Christian opposition of the divine (hidden) to the earthly, accessible to direct perception]; Pythagorean-Neoplatonic traditions further strengthened this trend. The Byzantines, based on the Christian worldview, recognized the presence of divine (in their view, objective) truth, and accordingly clearly divided phenomena into good and bad, which is why everything existing on earth received an ethical assessment from them. From the (illusory) possession of truth flowed intolerance towards any dissent, which was interpreted as a deviation from the good path, as heresy.

Byzantine culture differed from Western European medieval culture by: 1) a higher (until the 12th century) level of material production; 2) sustainable preservation of ancient traditions in education, science, literary creativity, fine arts, and everyday life; 3) individualism (underdevelopment of corporate principles and concepts of corporate honor; belief in the possibility of individual salvation, while the Western church made salvation dependent on the sacraments, i.e., on the shares of the church-corporation; individualistic, not hierarchical interpretation of property), which does not combined with freedom (the Byzantine felt directly dependent on higher powers - God and the emperor); 4) the cult of the emperor as a sacred figure (earthly deity), who required worship in the form of special ceremonies, clothing, addresses, etc.; 5) the unification of scientific and artistic creativity, which was facilitated by the bureaucratic centralization of the Byzantine state. The capital of the empire, Constantinople, determined artistic taste, subjugating local schools.

Considering their culture as the highest achievement of humanity, the Byzantines consciously protected themselves from foreign influences: only from the 11th century. they begin to draw on the experience of Arab medicine, translate monuments of Eastern literature, and later an interest in Arabic and Persian mathematics, Latin scholasticism and literature arose. The bookish nature of Byzantine culture was combined with the absence of strict differentiation between individual branches: the typical figure of Byzantine culture was that of a scientist who wrote on a wide variety of branches of knowledge - from mathematics to theology and fiction (John of Damascus, 8th century; Michael Psellus, 11th century; Nikephoros Blemmydes, 13th century; Theodore Metochites, 14th century).

The definition of the totality of monuments that make up Byzantine culture is conditional. First of all, it is problematic to attribute late antique monuments of the 4th-5th centuries to Byzantine culture. (especially Latin, Syriac, Coptic), as well as medieval ones created outside of Vietnam - in Syria, Sicily, Southern Italy, but united according to ideological, artistic or linguistic principles in the circle of Eastern Christian monuments. There is no clear line between late antique and Byzantine culture: there was a long transition period when ancient principles, themes and genres, if not dominant, then coexisted with new principles,

The main stages of the development of Byzantine culture: 1) 4th - mid-7th centuries. - transitional period from ancient to medieval culture (proto-Byzantine). Despite the crisis of ancient society, its basic elements are still preserved in Byzantium, and proto-Byzantine culture still has an urban character. This period is characterized by the formation of Christian theology while preserving the achievements of ancient scientific thought, and the development of Christian artistic ideals. 2) Mid 7th - mid 9th centuries. - cultural decline (although not as consistent as in Western Europe), associated with economic decline, agrarianization of cities, and the loss of Eastern provinces and large centers. 3) Mid 9th-12th centuries. - cultural upsurge, characterized by the restoration of ancient traditions, systematization of preserved cultural heritage, the emergence of elements of rationalism, the transition from formal use to the assimilation of ancient heritage, 4) 13th - mid-15th centuries. - a period of ideological reaction caused by the political and economic decline of Vietnam. At this time, attempts were made to overcome the medieval worldview and medieval aesthetic principles, which were not developed (the question of the emergence of humanism in Vietnam remains debatable).

The culture of Vietnam had a great influence on neighboring countries (Bulgaria, Serbia, Rus', Armenia, Georgia, etc.) in the field of literature, fine arts, religious beliefs, etc. The role of Vietnam in preserving the ancient heritage and transferring it to Italy on the eve of Renaissance.

Education. The traditions of ancient education were preserved in Britain until the 12th century. education was at a higher level than anywhere else in Europe. Primary education (learning to read and write) was received in private grammar schools, usually for 2-3 years. Until 7th century the curriculum was based on the mythology of pagan religions (student notebooks from Egypt with lists of mythological names have been preserved), and later on Christian ones. Psalms. Secondary education (“enkiklios pedia”) was received under the guidance of a teacher-grammar or rhetorician using ancient textbooks (for example, “Grammar” by Dionysius the Thracian, 2nd century BC). The program included spelling, grammatical norms, pronunciation, principles of versification, oratory, sometimes tachygraphy (the art of abbreviated writing), as well as the ability to compose documents. The educational subjects also included philosophy, which, however, meant different disciplines. According to the classification of John of Damascus, philosophy was divided into “theoretical”, which included theology, the “mathematical quaternity” (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music) and “physiology” (the study of the surrounding nature), and “practical” (ethics, politics, economics ). Sometimes philosophy was understood as “dialectics” (in the modern sense - logic) and was considered as a preparatory discipline, sometimes it was interpreted as a final science. History was included in the curriculum of some schools. In V. there were also monastery schools, but (unlike Western European ones) they did not play a significant role. In the 4th-6th centuries. Higher schools preserved from the era of antiquity continued to function in Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Antioch, Gaza, and Caesarea in Palestine. Gradually, the provincial higher school ceases to exist. Created in 425, the higher school in Constantinople (auditoriums) supplanted the rest of the higher schools. The auditorium of Constantinople was a state institution, whose professors were considered civil servants, only they were allowed to teach publicly in the capital. There were 31 professors in the audience: 10 on Greek grammar, 10 on Latin grammar, 3 on Greek eloquence and 5 on Latin, 2 on law, 1 on philosophy. The question of the existence of higher school in the 7th-8th centuries. controversial: according to legend, the building of the Constantinople school was burned by Emperor Leo III in 726 along with teachers and books. Attempts to organize a higher school began in the mid-9th century, when the Magnavra school began to function (in the Palace of Constantinople), led by Leo the Mathematician. Its program was limited to general education subjects. The school trained high secular and spiritual dignitaries. In the middle of the 11th century. Law and philosophical schools were opened in Constantinople - government institutions that trained officials. John Xiphilinus, Konstantin Likhud (law), Michael Psellus (philosophy) taught here. From the end of the 11th century. The philosophical school became the focus of rationalistic views, which led to the condemnation by the Orthodox Church of its teachers John Italus and Eustratius of Nicaea as heretics. In the 12th century Higher education is placed under the patronage of the church and is entrusted with the task of combating heresies. At the end of the 11th century. The Patriarchal School was opened, the program of which included interpretation of the Holy Scriptures and rhetorical training. In a school created in the 12th century. at the church of St. The Apostle in Constantinople, in addition to traditional subjects, was taught medicine. After 1204, the higher school in Vietnam ceased to exist. State schools are increasingly being replaced by schools at monasteries, where scientists settled (Nicephorus Vlemmydes, Nikephoros Grigora, etc.). Such schools usually closed after the death of the teacher or his disgrace. Ancient libraries did not survive the early Byzantine period. The Library of Alexandria was destroyed in 391; The public library in Constantinople (founded around 356) burned down in 475. Little is known about libraries in later times. There were libraries of the emperor, patriarch, monasteries, higher schools and private individuals (the collections of Arethas of Caesarea, Michael Choniates, Maximus Planud, Theodore Metochites, Vissarion of Nicaea are known).

Technique. V. inherited ancient agricultural technology (a wooden wheelless plow with removable coulters, a threshing drag to which livestock was harnessed, artificial irrigation, etc.) and crafts. This allowed V. to remain until the 12th century. a leading European state in the field of production: in jewelry, silk weaving, monumental construction, shipbuilding (from the 9th century, oblique sails began to be used); from the 9th century The production of glazed ceramics and glass (according to ancient recipes) became widespread. However, the desire of the Byzantines to preserve ancient traditions fettered technological progress, which contributed to the progress that began in the 12th century. the lag of most Byzantine crafts from Western European ones (glassmaking, shipbuilding, etc.). In the 14th-15th centuries. Byzantine textile production could no longer compete with Italian.

Mathematics and natural sciences. In Britain, the social prestige of mathematics was significantly lower than rhetoric and philosophy (the most important medieval scientific disciplines). Byzantine mathematics in the 4th-6th centuries. was primarily limited to commenting on ancient classics: Theon of Alexandria (4th century) published and interpreted the works of Euclid and Ptolemy, John Philoponus (6th century) commented on the natural science works of Aristotle, Eutocius of Ascalon (6th century) - Archimedes. Much attention was paid to tasks that turned out to be unpromising (squaring the circle, doubling the cube). At the same time, in some issues, Byzantine science went further than ancient science: John Philoponus came to the conclusion that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their gravity; Anthemius of Thrall, architect and engineer, famous as the builder of the temple of St. Sofia, proposed a new explanation for the action of burning mirrors. Byzantine physics (“physiology”) remained bookish and descriptive: the use of experiment was rare (it is possible that John Philoponus’s conclusion about the speed of falling bodies was based on experience). The influence of Christianity on the Byzantine natural sciences was expressed in attempts to create holistic descriptions of the cosmos (“six-day”, “physiologists”), where live observations were intertwined with pious moralization and the disclosure of allegorical meaning supposedly contained in natural phenomena. A certain rise in the natural sciences can be traced back to the mid-9th century. Leo the Mathematician (apparently one of the creators of the fire telegraph and automata - gilded figures driven by water that decorated the Great Palace of Constantinople) was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols. Apparently in the 12th century. an attempt was made to introduce Arabic numerals (positional system). Late Byzantine mathematicians showed interest in Eastern science. Trebizond scientists (Gregory Chioniades, 13th century, his successors Gregory Chrysococcus and Isaac Argyrus, 14th century) studied the achievements of Arab and Persian mathematics and astronomy. The study of the eastern heritage contributed to the creation of the consolidated work of Theodore Melitiniot “Astronomy in Three Books” (1361). In the field of cosmology, the Byzantines adhered to traditional ideas, some of which went back to the biblical concept [in the clearest form of the doctrine of a flat earth washed by the ocean, set forth by Cosmas Indicopleus (6th century), who polemicized with Ptolemy], others - to the achievements of Hellenistic science, which recognized sphericity of the earth [Basily the Great, Gregory of Nyssa (4th century), Photius (9th century. ) believed that the doctrine of the spherical shape of the earth does not contradict the Bible]. Astronomical observations were subordinated to the interests of astrology, widespread in Britain, which in the 12th century. came under sharp attack from Orthodox theology, which condemned the direct connection of the movement of the heavenly bodies with human destiny as contrary to the idea of ​​​​divine providence. In the 14th century Nikephoros Grigora proposed reform of the calendar and predicted a solar eclipse.

The Byzantines had great traditional practical skills in chemistry, necessary for the production of dyes, colored glazes, glass, etc. Alchemy, closely intertwined with magic, was widespread in the early Byzantine period, and, perhaps, the largest chemical discovery is to some extent associated with it of that time - invention at the end of the 7th century. “Greek fire” (a spontaneously combustible mixture of oil, saltpeter, etc., used to fire at enemy ships and fortifications). From the passion for alchemy, which swept Western Europe from the 12th century. and ultimately led to the establishment of experimental science, Byzantine speculative natural science practically remained on the sidelines.

Zoology, botany, and agronomy were of a purely descriptive nature (the imperial collection of rare animals in Constantinople, of course, was not of a scientific nature): compilation manuals on agronomy (“Geoponics,” 10th century) and horse breeding (“Hippiatrics”) were created. In the 13th century Demetrius Pepagomen wrote a book about falcons, containing a number of lively and subtle observations. Byzantine descriptions of animals included not only real fauna, but also the world of fairy-tale animals (unicorns). Mineralogy dealt with the description of stones and soil types (Theofastus, late 4th century), while endowing minerals with occult properties supposedly inherent to them.

Byzantine medicine was based on ancient tradition. In the 4th century. Oribasius of Pergamon compiled the “Medical Manual,” which is a compilation of the writings of ancient physicians. Despite the Christian attitude of the Byzantines towards illness as a God-sent test and even as a kind of contact with the supernatural (especially epilepsy and insanity), in Byzantium (at least in Constantinople) there were hospitals with special departments (surgical, women's) and medical schools with them. In the 11th century Simeon Seth wrote a book about the properties of food (taking into account Arab experience) in the 13th century. Nikolai Mireps - a guide to the pharmacopoeia, which was used in Western Europe back in the 17th century. John the Actuary (14th century) introduced practical observations into his medical writings.

Geography in Vietnam began with official descriptions of regions, cities, and church dioceses. Around 535, Hierocles compiled the Synecdemus, a description of 64 provinces and 912 cities, which formed the basis of many later geographical works. In the 10th century Konstantin Porphyrogenitus compiled a description of the themes (regions) of V., based not so much on contemporary data as on tradition, which is why it contains many anachronisms. This circle of geographical literature includes descriptions of the travels of merchants (itineraria) and pilgrims. Anonymous itinerary 4th century. contains a detailed description of the Mediterranean Sea, indicating the distances between ports, goods produced in certain places, etc. Descriptions of the travels of the merchant Cosmas Indicoplov (See Cosmas Indicoplov) (6th century) have been preserved (“Christian topography”, where, in addition to general cosmological ideas, there are live observations, reliable information about different countries and peoples of Arabia, Africa, etc.), John Phocas (12th century) - to Palestine, Andrei Livadin (14th century) - to Palestine and Egypt, Kanan Lascaris ( late 14th or early 15th centuries) - to Germany, Scandinavia and Iceland. The Byzantines knew how to make geographical maps.

Philosophy. The main ideological sources of Byzantine philosophy are the Bible and Greek classical philosophy (mainly Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics). Foreign influence on Byzantine philosophy is negligible and mostly negative (polemics against Islam and Latin theology). In the 4th-7th centuries. Byzantine philosophy is dominated by three directions: 1) Neoplatonism (Iamblichus, Julian the Apostate, Proclus), which defended, in the crisis of the ancient world, the idea of ​​harmonious unity of the Universe, achieved through a chain of dialectical transitions from the One (deity) to matter (there is no concept of evil in ethics) ; the ideal of the polis organization and ancient polytheistic mythology were preserved; 2) Gnostic-Manichaean dualism, based on the idea of ​​an irreconcilable split of the Universe into the kingdom of Good and Evil, the struggle between which should end in the victory of Good; 3) Christianity, which developed as a religion of “sublated dualism”, as the middle line between Neoplatonism and Manichaeism. The central moment in the development of theology of the 4th-7th centuries. - affirmation of the doctrine of the Trinity (See Trinity) and the divine-humanity of Christ (both were absent from the Bible and were sanctified by the church after a stubborn struggle against Arianism, Monophysitism, Nestorianism and Monothelitism). Recognizing the essential difference between the “earthly” and the “heavenly,” Christianity allowed for the possibility of a supernatural (thanks to the help of the God-man) overcoming this schism (Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa). In the field of cosmology, the biblical concept of creation was gradually established (see above). Anthropology (Nemesius, Maximus the Confessor) proceeded from the idea of ​​man as the center of the universe (“everything was created for man”) and interpreted him as a microcosm, as a miniature reflection of the Universe. In ethics, the problem of salvation occupied a central place. Diverging from Western theology (Augustine), Byzantine philosophy, especially mysticism, which was strongly influenced by Neoplatonism (see Areopagitism), proceeded from the possibility of not so much corporate (through the church) as individual (through personal “deification” - a person’s physical achievement of the deity) salvation . Unlike Western theologians, Byzantine philosophers, continuing the traditions of the Alexandrian school (Clement of Alexandria, Origen), recognized the importance of the ancient cultural heritage.

The completion of the formation of Byzantine theology coincides with the decline of cities in the 7th century. Byzantine philosophical thought was faced with the task not of the creative development of Christian teaching, but of the preservation of cultural values ​​in a tense economic and political situation. John of Damascus proclaims compilation as the principle of his work, borrowing ideas from Basil the Great, Nemesius and other "church fathers", as well as from Aristotle. At the same time, he strives to create a systematic presentation of Christian doctrine, including a negative program - the refutation of heresies. “The Source of Knowledge” by John of Damascus is the first philosophical and theological “sum”, which had a huge influence on Western scholasticism (See Scholasticism). The main ideological discussion of the 8th-9th centuries. - the dispute between iconoclasts and icon worshipers - continues to some extent the theological discussions of the 4th-7th centuries. If in disputes with the Arians and other heretics of the 4th-7th centuries. The Orthodox Church defended the idea that Christ carries out a supernatural connection between the divine and the human, then in the 8th-9th centuries. opponents of iconoclasm (John of Damascus, Theodore the Studite) viewed the icon as a material image of the heavenly world and, therefore, as an intermediary link connecting “above” and “below.” Both the image of the god-man and the icon in the orthodox interpretation served as a means of overcoming the dualism of the earthly and the heavenly. In contrast, Paulicianism (see Paulicianism) and Bogomilism supported the dualistic traditions of Manichaeism.

In the 2nd half of the 9th-10th centuries. accounts for the activities of scholars who revived the knowledge of antiquity. From the 11th century The philosophical struggle takes on new features in connection with the emergence of Byzantine rationalism. The desire for systematization and classification, characteristic of the previous period, evokes criticism from two sides: consistent mystics (Simeon the Theologian) oppose the cold system with an emotional “merger” with the deity; Rationalists discover contradictions in the theological system. Michael Psellus laid the foundation for a new attitude towards the ancient heritage as an integral phenomenon, and not as a sum of information. His followers (John Italus, Eustratius of Nicea, Sotirich), relying on formal logic (Eustratius: “Christ also used syllogisms”), questioned a number of theological doctrines. Interest in applied knowledge, especially medical knowledge, is growing.

The collapse of Britain after 1204 into a number of states forced to fight for existence gave rise to a heightened sense of the tragedy of its own situation. 14th century - time of a new rise of mysticism (Hesychasm - Gregory of Sinaite, Gregory of Palamas); despairing of the possibility of preserving their state, not believing in reforms, hesychasts limit ethics to religious self-improvement, developing formal “psychophysical” methods of prayer that open the way to “deification.” The attitude towards ancient traditions becomes ambivalent: on the one hand, in the restoration of ancient institutions they try to see the last opportunity for reform (Plithon), on the other hand, the greatness of antiquity gives rise to a feeling of despair, one’s own creative helplessness (George Scholarius). After 1453, Byzantine emigrants (Plithon, Vissarion of Nicaea) contributed to the spread of ideas about ancient Greek philosophy, especially Plato, in the West. Byzantine philosophy had a great influence on medieval scholasticism, the Italian Renaissance and on philosophical thought in the Slavic countries, Georgia, and Armenia.

Historical science. In Byzantine historical science of the 4th - mid-7th centuries. Ancient traditions were still strong, and the pagan worldview dominated. Even in the writings of 6th century authors. (Procopius of Caesarea, Agathias of Myrinea) the influence of Christianity had almost no effect. At the same time, already in the 4th century. a new direction in historiography is being created, represented by Eusebius of Caesarea (See Eusebius of Caesarea), who viewed the history of mankind not as the result of cumulative human efforts, but as a teleological process. 6th-10th centuries The main genre of historical works is the world historical chronicle (John Malala, Theophan the Confessor, George Amartol), the subject of which was the global history of mankind (usually starting from Adam), presented with outright didacticism. In the middle of the 11th-12th centuries. historical science was on the rise, historical works began to predominate, written by contemporaries of the events, telling about a short period of time (Michael Psellus, Michael Attaliatus, Anna Comnena, John Kinnam, Niketas Choniates); the presentation became emotionally charged and journalistic. In their writings there is no longer a theological explanation of events: God does not act as the direct engine of history, history (especially in the works of Michael Psellus and Nikita Choniates) is created by human passions. A number of historians expressed a skeptical attitude towards the main Byzantine social institutions (for example, Choniates opposed the traditional cult of imperial power and contrasted the belligerence and moral fortitude of the “barbarians” with Byzantine corruption). Psellus and Choniates moved away from the moralistic unambiguous characteristics of the characters, drawing complex images that are characterized by good and bad qualities. From the 13th century Historical science was in decline; its main subject was theological discussions (with the exception of the memoirs of John Cantacuzenus, 14th century). The last rise of Byzantine historiography occurred at the end of Byzantine history, when the tragic perception of reality gave rise to a “relativistic” approach to understanding the historical process (Laonicus Chalkokondylos ), the driving force of which was seen not in the guiding will of God, but in “quiet” - fate or chance.

Legal science. The desire for systematization and traditionalism, characteristic of Byzantine culture, were especially clearly manifested in Byzantine legal science, which began with the systematization of Roman law and the compilation of codes of civil law, the most significant of which is the Corpus juris civilis (6th century). Byzantine law was then based on this code; the task of jurists was limited mainly to the interpretation and retelling of the code. In the 6th-7th centuries. Corpus juris civilis was partially translated from Latin into Greek. These translations formed the basis of the compilation collection Vasiliki (9th century), which was often copied with marginal scholia (marginal comments). Various reference guides were compiled for Vasiliki, including “synopses”, where articles on individual legal issues were arranged in alphabetical order. In addition to Roman law, Byzantine legal science studied Canon Law, which was based on the decrees (rules) of church councils. The rise of legal science began in the 11th century, when a higher law school was founded in Constantinople. An attempt to generalize the practice of the Constantinople court was made in the 11th century. in the so-called “Pir” (“Experience”) - a collection of court decisions. In the 12th century Byzantine jurists (Zonara, Aristin, Balsamon) issued a number of interpretations on the rules of church councils, trying to harmonize the norms of canon and Roman law. There was a notary in Vietnam, and in the 13th and 14th centuries. individual provincial offices developed local types of forms for drawing up documents.

Literature. The literature of Byzantium was based on the thousand-year-old traditions of ancient Greek literature, which throughout the history of Byzantium retained its role as a model. The works of Byzantine writers are full of reminiscences from ancient authors; the principles of ancient rhetoric, epistolography, and poetics remained effective. At the same time, early Byzantine literature was already characterized by new artistic principles, themes and genres, developed partly under the influence of early Christian and eastern (mainly Syrian) traditions. This new corresponded to the general principles of the Byzantine worldview and was expressed in the author’s feeling of his own insignificance and personal responsibility before God, in an evaluative (Good - Evil) perception of reality; the focus is no longer on the martyr and fighter, but on the ascetic-righteous; metaphor gives way to symbol, logical connections - to associations, stereotypes, simplified vocabulary. The theater, condemned by Christian theologians, had no soil in Europe. The transformation of liturgy into the main form of dramatic action was accompanied by the flowering of liturgical poetry; the largest liturgical poet was Roman Sladkopevets. Liturgical chants (hymns) were kontakia (in Greek “stick”, since the manuscript of the hymn was wrapped on a stick) - poems consisting of an introduction and 20-30 stanzas (troparia), ending with the same refrain. The content of liturgical poetry was based on the traditions of the Old and New Testaments and on the lives of the saints. Kontakion was essentially a poetic sermon, sometimes turning into dialogue. The novel Sladkopevets, who began to use tonic metrics, making extensive use of alliteration and assonance (at times even rhymes), managed to fill it with bold maxims, comparisons and antitheses. History as a narrative about the clash of human passions (Procopius of Caesarea) is replaced by the history of the church and the world historical chronicle, where the path of humanity is shown as a theological drama of the clash of Good and Evil (Eusebius of Caesarea, John Malala), and life, where the same drama unfolds within the framework of one human destiny (Palladius of Elenopolis, Cyril of Scythopolis, John Moschos). Rhetoric, which even in Libanius and Sinesius of Cyrene (See Sinesius) corresponded to the ancient canons, already among their contemporaries turns into the art of preaching (Basily the Great, John Chrysostom). Epigram and poetic ekphrase (description of monuments), which before the 6th century. preserved the ancient figurative system (Agathias of Myrinea, Paul the Silentiary), were replaced by moralizing gnomes.

In subsequent centuries (mid-7th to mid-9th centuries), the ancient traditions almost disappeared, while the new principles that emerged in the proto-Byzantine period became dominant. In prose literature, the main genres are chronicle (Theophanes the Confessor) and hagiography; Hagiographic literature experienced a special upsurge during the period of iconoclasm, when lives served the purpose of glorifying monastic iconoclasts. Liturgical poetry during this period loses its former freshness and drama, which is outwardly expressed in the replacement of the kontakion with a canon - a chant consisting of several independent songs; The “Great Canon” of Andrei Kritsky (7th-8th centuries) has 250 stanzas, is distinguished by its verbosity and prolixity, the author’s desire to contain all the wealth of his knowledge in one work. But the gnomes of Cassia and the epigrams of Theodore the Studite (See Theodore the Studite) on the themes of monastic life, with all their moralization, sometimes naive, are sharp and vital.

From the middle of the 9th century. a new period of accumulation of literary traditions begins. Literary collections are being created (“Miriobiblon” by Photius (See Photius) - the first experience of critical-bibliographic literature, covering about 280 books), dictionaries (Svida). Simeon Metaphrastus compiled a set of Byzantine Lives, arranging them according to the days of the church calendar.

From the 11th century in Byzantine literature (for example, in the works of Christopher of Mytilene (See Christopher of Mytilene) and Michael Psellus), along with elements of rationalism and criticism of monastic life, there is an interest in specific details, humorous assessments, attempts to psychologically motivate actions, and use colloquial language. The leading genres of early Byzantine literature (liturgical poetry, hagiography) are declining and ossifying. World historical chronicles, despite the attempt of John Zonara (See John Zonara) to create a detailed narrative using the works of the best ancient historians, are being pushed aside by memoirs and semi-memoir historical prose, where the subjective tastes of the authors are expressed. A military epic (“Digenis Akritus”) and an erotic novel appeared, imitating the ancient one, but at the same time claiming to be an allegorical expression of Christian ideas (Makremvolit). In rhetoric and epistolography, a lively observational attitude emerges, tinged with humor and, at times, sarcasm. Leading writers of the 11th-12th centuries. (Theophylact of Bulgaria, Theodore Prodromus, Eustathius of Thessalonica, Michael Choniates and Nikita Choniates, Nikolai Mesaritus) - mainly rhetoricians and historians, but at the same time philologists and poets. New forms of organizing literary creativity were also being created - literary circles united around an influential patron of the arts, such as Anna Komnena, who herself was a writer. In contrast to the traditional individualistic worldview (Simeon the Theologian, Kekavmen), relationships of friendship are cultivated, which in epistolography appears almost in erotic images (“languor”). However, there is no break with either the theological worldview or traditional aesthetic norms. There is also no tragic feeling of a time of crisis: for example, the anonymous essay “Timarion” describes a journey to hell in gently humorous tones.

The capture of Constantinople by the crusaders (1204) practically put an end to “pre-Renaissance” phenomena in Byzantine literature. Late Byzantine literature is distinguished by compilation and is dominated by theological polemics. Even the most significant poetry (Manuel Phila) remains within the circle of themes and images of Theodore Prodromus (a 12th-century court poet and author of panegyrics to emperors and nobles). A living personal perception of reality, such as the memoirs of John Cantacuzene, is a rare exception. Folklore elements (“animal” themes of fables and epics) and imitations of the West are being introduced. chivalric romance (“Florius and Placeflora”, etc.). Perhaps under Western influence in Britain in the 14th and 15th centuries. theatrical performances based on biblical stories appeared, for example about young men in the “cave of fire.” Only on the eve of the fall of the empire and especially after this event does literature emerge, permeated with an awareness of the tragedy of the situation and responsibility, although usually seeking solutions to all problems in “omnipotent” antiquity (Gemist, George Pliphon). The conquest of Byzantium by the Turks brought to life a new rise in ancient Greek historical prose (George Sphranzi, Dukas, Laonikos Chalkokondylos, Kritovul), which chronologically lay outside the boundaries of Byzantine literature proper.

The best works of Bulgarian literature had a great influence on Bulgarian, Old Russian, Serbian, Georgian, and Armenian literature. Individual monuments (Digenis Akritus, Lives) were also known in the West.

The architecture and fine arts of Vietnam, unlike most European countries, did not experience significant influence from the culture of “barbarian” peoples. It also avoided the catastrophic destruction that befell the Western Roman Empire. For these reasons, ancient traditions were preserved for a long time in Byzantine art, especially since the first centuries of its development passed under the conditions of a late slave state. The process of transition to medieval culture in Vietnam dragged on for a long time and proceeded along several channels. The features of Byzantine art were clearly defined by the 6th century.

In the town planning and secular architecture of Vietnam, which largely preserved the ancient cities, medieval principles took shape slowly. Architecture of Constantinople 4-5 centuries. (the forum with the column of Constantine, the hippodrome, the complex of imperial palaces with vast rooms decorated with mosaic floors) maintains connections with ancient architecture, mainly Roman. However, already in the 5th century. A new, radial layout of the Byzantine capital begins to take shape. New fortifications of Constantinople are being built, representing a developed system of walls, towers, ditches, Escarpments and Glacis. In the cult architecture of V. already in the 4th century. new types of temples arise, fundamentally different from their ancient predecessors - church basilicas (See Basilica) and centric domed buildings, mainly baptisteries (See Baptistery). Along with Constantinople (the Basilica of John the Studite, around 463), they were also erected in other parts of the Byzantine Empire, acquiring local features and a variety of forms (the austere stone basilica of Kalb-Luzeh in Syria, around 480; the brick Basilica of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki, which preserved the Hellenistic picturesque interior , 5th century; rotunda of St. George in Thessaloniki, rebuilt at the end of the 4th century). The stinginess and simplicity of their external appearance contrasts with the richness and splendor of the interiors, associated with the needs of Christian worship. A special environment is created inside the temple, separated from the outside world. Over time, the internal space of temples becomes more and more fluid and dynamic, involving in its rhythms ancient order elements (columns, entablatures, etc.), which were abundantly used in Byzantine architecture until the 7-8 centuries. The architecture of church interiors expresses a sense of the vastness and complexity of the universe, beyond the control of human will in its development, derived from the deepest shocks caused by the death of the ancient world.

V. architecture reached its highest rise in the 6th century. Numerous fortifications are being built along the country's borders. Palaces and temples of truly imperial splendor were built in cities (the centric churches of Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, 526-527, and San Vitale in Ravenna, 526-547). The search for a synthetic religious building combining a basilica with a domed structure, which began back in the 5th century, is coming to an end. (stone churches with wooden domes in Syria, Asia Minor, Athens). In the 6th century. large domed, cross-shaped churches were erected (the Apostles in Constantinople, Panagia on the island of Paros, etc.) and rectangular domed basilicas (the churches in Philippi, St. Irene in Constantinople, etc.). The masterpiece among domed basilicas is the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537, architects Anthimius and Isidore: see Temple of Sophia). Its huge dome is erected on 4 pillars with the help of sails (See Sails). Along the longitudinal axis of the building, the pressure of the dome is absorbed by complex systems of semi-domes and colonnades. At the same time, the massive supporting pillars are masked from the viewer, and 40 windows cut into the base of the dome create an extraordinary effect - the bowl of the dome seems to easily float above the temple. Commensurate with the greatness of the Byzantine state of the 6th century, the Church of St. Sophia embodies in her architectural and artistic image ideas about eternal and incomprehensible “superhuman” principles. The type of domed basilica, which requires extremely skillful strengthening of the side walls of the building, was not further developed. In the urban planning of V. by the 6th century. medieval features are identified. In the cities of the Balkan Peninsula, the fortified Upper City stands out, with residential neighborhoods growing near its walls. Cities in Syria are often built on an irregular plan to suit the terrain. The type of residential building with a courtyard in a number of areas of Vietnam has long retained connections with ancient architecture (in Syria - until the 7th century, in Greece - until the 10th-12th centuries). Multi-storey buildings are being built in Constantinople, often with arcades on the facades.

The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages caused a deep crisis in artistic culture, causing the disappearance of some and the emergence of other types and genres of fine art. The main role began to be played by art related to church and state needs - temple paintings, icon painting, as well as book miniatures (mainly in cult manuscripts). Penetrating the medieval religious worldview, art changes its figurative nature. The idea of ​​human value is transferred to the otherworldly realm. In this regard, the ancient creative method is destroyed, and a specific medieval convention of art is developed. Shackled by religious ideas, it reflects reality not through its direct depiction, but mainly through the spiritual and emotional structure of works of art. The art of sculpture comes to a sharp expression that destroys the ancient plastic form (the so-called “Head of the Philosopher from Ephesus”, 5th century, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna); Over time, round sculpture almost completely disappeared in Byzantine art. In sculptural reliefs (for example, on the so-called “consular diptychs”) individual observations of life are combined with schematization of visual means. Antique motifs are most firmly preserved in artistic craft products (products made of stone, bone, metal). In church mosaics of the 4th-5th centuries. the ancient feeling of the colorfulness of the real world is preserved (mosaics of the Church of St. George in Thessaloniki, late 4th century). Late Antique techniques up to the 10th century. repeated in book miniature (“Scroll of Joshua”, Vatican Library, Rome). But in the 5th-7th centuries. in all types of painting, including the first icons (Sergius and Bacchus, 6th century, Kiev Museum of Western and Eastern Art), the spiritual and speculative principle is growing. Coming into collision with the volumetric-spatial method of representation (mosaics of the Church of Hosios David in Thessaloniki, 5th century), it subsequently subjugates all artistic means. Architectural landscape backgrounds are replaced by abstractly solemn golden backgrounds; images become flat, their expressiveness is revealed with the help of consonances of pure spots of color, rhythmic beauty of lines and generalized silhouettes; human images are endowed with a stable emotional meaning (mosaics depicting Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, around 547; mosaics in the church of Panagia Kanakaria in Cyprus and the monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai - 6th century. , as well as mosaics of the 7th century, marked by greater freshness of perception of the world and spontaneity of feeling - in the churches of the Assumption in Nicaea and St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki).

The historical upheavals experienced by Britain in the 7th and early 9th centuries caused a significant change in artistic culture. In the architecture of this time, a transition was made to the cross-domed type of temple (its prototype is the Church “Outside the Walls” in Rusafa, 6th century; buildings of a transitional type - the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, 7th century, and St. Sophia in Thessaloniki, 8th century .). In the fierce struggle between the views of icon-worshipers and iconoclasts, who denied the legitimacy of using real pictorial forms to convey religious content, the contradictions accumulated in the previous time were resolved, and the aesthetics of developed medieval art was formed. During the period of iconoclasm, churches were decorated mainly with images of Christian symbols and decorative paintings.

In the middle of the 9th-12th centuries, during the heyday of Eastern art, the cross-domed type of the temple was finally established, with a dome on a drum, stably mounted on supports, from which 4 vaults diverge crosswise. Lower corner rooms are also covered with domes and vaults. Such a temple is a system of small spaces, cells, securely connected to each other, lining up with ledges into a harmonious pyramidal composition. The structure of the building is visible inside the temple and clearly expressed in its external appearance. The outer walls of such temples are often decorated with patterned masonry, ceramic inserts, etc. The cross-domed church is a complete architectural type. In the future, V. architecture only develops variants of this type, without discovering anything fundamentally new. In the classic version of the cross-domed temple, the dome is erected with the help of sails on free-standing supports (the Church of Atticus and Kalender, 9th century, the Church of Mireleion, 10th century, the temple complex of Pantocrator, 12th century, all in Constantinople; the Church of Our Lady in Thessaloniki , 1028, etc.). On the territory of Greece, a type of temple with a dome on tromps (See Tromps) resting on 8 ends of the walls developed (temples: Katolikon in the monastery of Hosios Loukas, in Daphne - both 11th century). In the monasteries of Athos, a type of temple developed with apses at the northern, eastern and southern ends of the cross, forming a so-called triconch in plan. In the provinces of Europe, private varieties of the cross-domed church were found, and basilicas were also built.

In the 9th-10th centuries. The paintings of temples are brought into a harmonious system. The walls and vaults of churches are completely covered with mosaics and frescoes, arranged in a strictly defined hierarchical order and subordinate to the composition of the cross-domed building. An architectural and artistic environment imbued with a single content is created in the interior, which also includes the icons placed on the iconostasis. In the spirit of the victorious teaching of icon worshipers, images are considered as a reflection of the ideal “archetype”; The plots and composition of paintings, drawing and painting techniques are subject to certain regulation. Byzantine painting expressed its ideas, however, through the image of a person, revealing them as properties or states of this image. Ideally sublime images of people dominate the art of Europe, to a certain extent preserving in a transformed form the artistic experience of ancient art. Thanks to this, the art of V. looks relatively more “humanized” than many other great arts of the Middle Ages.

General principles of Byzantine painting of the 9th-12th centuries. are developed in their own way in individual art schools. Capital art is represented by mosaics of St. Constantinople. Sofia, in which from the “Macedonian” (mid-9th - mid-11th centuries) to the “Komnenian” period (mid-11th century - 1204) the sublime severity and spirituality of images, the virtuosity of the pictorial manner, combining the grace of linear drawing with an exquisite color scheme, increased. The best works of icon painting, distinguished by deep humanity of feelings, are associated with the capital (Our Lady of Vladimir, 12th century, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow). A large number of mosaics were created in the provinces - majestic and calm in the monastery of Daphne near Athens (11th century), dramatic and expressive in the monastery of Nea Moni on the island of Chios (11th century), provincially simplified in the monastery of Hosios Loukas in Phokis (11th century .). A variety of trends also exists in fresco painting, which has spread especially widely (the dramatic paintings of the Church of Panagia Kouvelitissa in Kastoria, 11-12 centuries; naive-primitive paintings in the cave churches of Cappadocia, etc.).

In book miniatures, after a brief flowering of art, imbued with vital spontaneity and political polemics (Khludov Psalter, 9th century, Historical Museum, Moscow), and a period of fascination with ancient models (Parisian Psalter, 10th century, National Library, Paris) The jewelry and decorative style is spreading. At the same time, these miniatures are also characterized by individual apt life observations, for example, in portraits of historical figures. Sculpture 9-12 centuries. It is represented mainly by relief icons and decorative carvings (altar barriers, capitals, etc.), distinguished by a wealth of ornamental motifs, often of ancient or oriental origin. Decorative and applied arts reached a high peak at this time: artistic fabrics, multi-color cloisonné enamel, ivory and metal products.

After the invasion of the Crusaders, Byzantine culture was revived again in Constantinople, recaptured in 1261, and its associated states in Greece and Asia Minor. Church architecture of the 14th-15th centuries. mainly repeats old types (small graceful churches of Fethiye and Molla Gyurani in Constantinople, 14th century; decorated with brickwork patterns and surrounded by a gallery, the Church of the Apostles in Thessaloniki, 1312-1315). In Mystras, churches are built that combine a basilica and a cross-domed church (2-tier church of the Pantanassa monastery, 1428). Medieval-based architecture sometimes absorbs some motifs of Italian architecture and reflects the formation of secular, Renaissance trends (the Church of Panagia Parigoritissa in Arta, around 1295; the Tekfur Serai Palace in Constantinople, 14th century; the palace of the rulers of Mystras, 13-15th centuries; etc. .). The residential buildings of Mystras are picturesquely located on a rocky slope, on the sides of the zigzag main street. 2-3-story houses, with utility rooms below and living rooms on the upper floors, resemble small fortresses. At the end. 13th - early 14th centuries. painting is experiencing a brilliant, but short-lived flourishing, in which attention is developing to concrete life content, real relationships between people, spaces, and the depiction of the environment - the mosaics of the Chora Monastery (Kahrie Jami) in Constantinople (early 14th century), the Church of the Apostles in Thessaloniki (about 1315), etc. However, the emerging break with medieval conventions did not materialize. From the middle of the 14th century. in the capital's painting of V., cold abstraction is intensifying; Fine decorative painting, sometimes including narrative-genre motifs, is spreading in the province (frescoes of the churches of Periveleptus and Pantanassa in Mystras, 2nd half of the 14th - 1st half of the 15th centuries). The traditions of fine art, as well as secular, religious and monastic architecture of Vietnam of this period were inherited in medieval Greece after the fall of Constantinople (1453), which put an end to the history of Vietnam.

Constantinople - at the center of the world

On May 11, 330 AD, on the European shore of the Bosphorus, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great solemnly founded the new capital of the empire - Constantinople (and to be precise and use its official name, then New Rome). The emperor did not create a new state: Byzantium in the strict sense of the word was not the successor of the Roman Empire, it itself was Rome. The word "Byzantium" appeared only in the West during the Renaissance. The Byzantines called themselves Romans (Romeans), their country - the Roman Empire (Empire of the Romans). Constantine's plans corresponded to this name. New Rome was built at a major crossroads of major trade routes and was originally planned as the greatest of cities. Built in the 6th century, Hagia Sophia was the tallest architectural structure on Earth for more than a thousand years, and its beauty was compared to Heaven.

Until the mid-12th century, New Rome was the main trading hub of the planet. Before its devastation by the Crusaders in 1204, it was also the most populated city in Europe. Later, especially in the last century and a half, more economically significant centers appeared on the globe. But even in our time, the strategic importance of this place would be difficult to overestimate. Owner of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits owned the entire Near and Middle East, and this is the heart of Eurasia and the entire Old World. In the 19th century, the real owner of the straits was the British Empire, which protected this place from Russia even at the cost of an open military conflict (during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, and the war could have started in 1836 or 1878). For Russia, this was not just a matter of “historical heritage,” but an opportunity to control its southern borders and main trade flows. After 1945, the keys to the straits were in the hands of the United States, and the deployment of American nuclear weapons in this region, as is known, immediately caused the appearance of Soviet missiles in Cuba and provoked the Cuban Missile Crisis. The USSR agreed to retreat only after the curtailment of American nuclear potential in Turkey. Nowadays, the issues of Turkey’s entry into the European Union and its foreign policy in Asia are paramount problems for the West.

They only dreamed of peace

New Rome received a rich inheritance. However, this also became his main “headache”. In his contemporary world there were too many contenders for appropriation of this inheritance. It is difficult to remember even one long period of calm on the Byzantine borders; the empire was in mortal danger at least once a century. Until the 7th century, the Romans, along the perimeter of all their borders, waged difficult wars with the Persians, Goths, Vandals, Slavs and Avars, and ultimately the confrontation ended in favor of New Rome. This happened very often: young and vibrant peoples who fought the empire went into historical oblivion, while the empire itself, ancient and almost defeated, licked its wounds and continued to live. However, then the former enemies were replaced by Arabs from the south, Lombards from the west, Bulgarians from the north, Khazars from the east, and a new centuries-old confrontation began. As the new opponents weakened, they were replaced in the north by the Rus, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, in the east by the Seljuk Turks, and in the west by the Normans.

In the fight against enemies, the empire used force, diplomacy, intelligence, military cunning, honed over centuries, and sometimes the services of its allies. The last resort was double-edged and extremely dangerous. The crusaders who fought with the Seljuks were extremely burdensome and dangerous allies for the empire, and this alliance ended with the first fall for Constantinople: the city, which had successfully fought off any attacks and sieges for almost a thousand years, was brutally devastated by its “friends.” Its further existence, even after liberation from the crusaders, was only a shadow of its previous glory. But just at this time, the last and most cruel enemy appeared - the Ottoman Turks, who were superior in their military qualities to all previous ones. The Europeans truly got ahead of the Ottomans in military affairs only in the 18th century, and the Russians were the first to do this, and the first commander who dared to appear in the internal regions of the Sultan's empire was Count Pyotr Rumyantsev, for which he received the honorary name of Transdanubia.

Irrepressible subjects

The internal state of the Roman Empire was also never calm. Its state territory was extremely heterogeneous. At one time, the Roman Empire maintained its unity through its superior military, commercial and cultural capabilities. The legal system (the famous Roman law, finally codified in Byzantium) was the most perfect in the world. For several centuries (since the time of Spartacus), Rome, within which more than a quarter of all humanity lived, was not threatened by any serious danger; wars took place on distant borders - in Germany, Armenia, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Only internal decay, the crisis of the army and the weakening of trade led to disintegration. Only from the end of the 4th century the situation on the borders became critical. The need to repel barbarian invasions in different directions inevitably led to the division of power in a huge empire between several people. However, this also had negative consequences - internal confrontation, further weakening of ties and the desire to “privatize” their piece of imperial territory. As a result, by the 5th century the final division of the Roman Empire became a fact, but did not alleviate the situation.

The eastern half of the Roman Empire was more populated and Christianized (by the time of Constantine the Great, Christians, despite persecution, already accounted for more than 10% of the population), but in itself did not constitute an organic whole. Amazing ethnic diversity reigned in the state: Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Arabs, Armenians, Illyrians lived here, and soon Slavs, Germans, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, Turks, Italians and many other peoples appeared, from whom only the confession of the true faith and submission to the imperial power appeared . Its richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - were geographically too distant from the capital, fenced off by mountain ranges and deserts. As trade declined and piracy flourished, maritime communication with them became increasingly difficult. In addition, the overwhelming majority of the population here were adherents of the Monophysite heresy. After the victory of Orthodoxy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, a powerful uprising broke out in these provinces, which was suppressed with great difficulty. Less than 200 years later, the Monophysites joyfully greeted the Arab “liberators” and subsequently converted to Islam relatively painlessly. The western and central provinces of the empire, primarily the Balkans, but also Asia Minor, experienced a massive influx of barbarian tribes - Germans, Slavs, Turks - for many centuries. Emperor Justinian the Great tried in the 6th century to expand the state's boundaries in the west and restore the Roman Empire to its “natural borders,” but this led to enormous effort and expense. Within a century, Byzantium was forced to shrink to the limits of its “state core,” predominantly inhabited by Greeks and Hellenized Slavs. This territory included the west of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, the Balkans and southern Italy. The further struggle for existence mainly took place in this territory.

The people and the army are united

The constant struggle required constant maintenance of defense capabilities. The Roman Empire was forced to revive the peasant militia and heavily armed cavalry that were characteristic of Ancient Rome during the republican period, and again create and maintain a powerful navy at state expense. Defense has always been the main expense of the treasury and the main burden for the taxpayer. The state closely monitored that the peasants maintained their fighting capacity, and therefore strengthened the community in every possible way, preventing its disintegration. The state fought against the excessive concentration of wealth, including land, in private hands. State regulation of prices was a very important part of the policy. The powerful state apparatus, of course, gave rise to the omnipotence of officials and large-scale corruption. Active emperors fought against abuses, while inert ones started the disease.

Of course, slow social stratification and limited competition slowed down the pace of economic development, but the fact of the matter is that the empire had more important tasks. It was not because of a good life that the Byzantines equipped their armed forces with all sorts of technical innovations and types of weapons, the most famous of which was the “Greek fire” invented in the 7th century, which brought the Romans more than one victory. The army of the empire maintained its fighting spirit until the second half of the 12th century, until it gave way to foreign mercenaries. The treasury now spent less, but the risk of it falling into the hands of the enemy increased immeasurably. Let us recall the classic expression of one of the recognized experts on the issue, Napoleon Bonaparte: the people who do not want to feed their army will feed someone else’s. From that time on, the empire began to depend on Western “friends,” who immediately showed it the value of friendship.

Autocracy as a recognized necessity

Empire as a katechon

The very existence of an empire was for Byzantium more of an obligation and a duty than an advantage or a rational choice. The ancient world, the only direct heir of which was the Roman Empire, has become a thing of the historical past. However, his cultural and political legacy became the foundation of Byzantium. The Empire, since the time of Constantine, was also a stronghold of the Christian faith. The basis of the state political doctrine was the idea of ​​the empire as a “katechon” - the guardian of the true faith. The barbarian Germans who filled the entire western part of the Roman ecumene accepted Christianity, but only in the Arian heretical version. The only major “acquisition” of the Universal Church in the West until the 8th century was the Franks. Having accepted the Nicene Creed, the Frankish king Clovis immediately received the spiritual and political support of the Roman Patriarch-Pope and the Byzantine Emperor. This began the growth of the power of the Franks in western Europe: Clovis was granted the title of Byzantine patrician, and his distant heir Charlemagne, three centuries later, already wanted to be called Emperor of the West.

The Byzantine mission of that period could easily compete with the Western one. Missionaries of the Church of Constantinople preached throughout Central and Eastern Europe - from the Czech Republic to Novgorod and Khazaria; The English and Irish Local Churches maintained close contacts with the Byzantine Church. However, papal Rome quite early began to be jealous of its competitors and expelled them by force; soon the mission itself in the papal West acquired an openly aggressive character and predominantly political objectives. The first large-scale action after Rome's fall from Orthodoxy was the papal blessing of William the Conqueror for his campaign in England in 1066; after this, many representatives of the Orthodox Anglo-Saxon nobility were forced to emigrate to Constantinople.

There were heated debates within the Byzantine Empire itself on religious grounds. Heretical movements arose either among the people or in the government. Under the influence of Islam, the emperors began iconoclastic persecutions in the 8th century, which provoked resistance from the Orthodox people. In the 13th century, out of a desire to strengthen relations with the Catholic world, the authorities agreed to a union, but again did not receive support. All attempts to “reform” Orthodoxy based on opportunistic considerations or to bring it under “earthly standards” have failed. The new union in the 15th century, concluded under the threat of Ottoman conquest, could no longer even ensure political success. It became a bitter smile of history over the vain ambitions of the rulers.

What is the advantage of the West?

When and in what ways did the West begin to gain the upper hand? As always, in economics and technology. In the spheres of culture and law, science and education, literature and art, Byzantium until the 12th century easily competed with or was far ahead of its Western neighbors. The powerful cultural influence of Byzantium was felt in the West and East far beyond its borders - in Arab Spain and Norman Britain, and in Catholic Italy it dominated until the Renaissance. However, due to the very conditions of existence of the empire, it could not boast of any special socio-economic successes. In addition, Italy and Southern France were initially more favorable for agricultural activity than the Balkans and Asia Minor. In the 12th–14th centuries, Western Europe experienced rapid economic growth - one that had not happened since ancient times and would not happen until the 18th century. This was the heyday of feudalism, papacy and chivalry. It was at this time that a special feudal structure of Western European society arose and was established with its estate-corporate rights and contractual relations (the modern West emerged precisely from this).

The Western influence on the Byzantine emperors from the Komnenos dynasty in the 12th century was the strongest: they copied Western military art, Western fashion, and for a long time acted as allies of the crusaders. The Byzantine fleet, so burdensome to the treasury, was disbanded and rotted, its place was taken by flotillas of the Venetians and Genoese. The emperors cherished the hope of overcoming the not so long ago falling away of papal Rome. However, the strengthened Rome already recognized only complete submission to its will. The West marveled at the imperial splendor and, to justify its aggressiveness, loudly resented the duplicity and corruption of the Greeks.

Did the Greeks drown in debauchery? Sin coexisted with grace. The horrors of palaces and city squares were interspersed with the genuine holiness of the monasteries and the sincere piety of the laity. Evidence of this is the lives of saints, liturgical texts, high and unsurpassed Byzantine art. But the temptations were very strong. After the defeat of 1204 in Byzantium, the pro-Western trend only intensified, young people went to study in Italy, and a craving for the pagan Hellenic tradition arose among the intelligentsia. Philosophical rationalism and European scholasticism (and it was based on the same pagan scholarship) began to be viewed in this environment as higher and more refined teachings than patristic ascetic theology. Intellect took precedence over Revelation, individualism over Christian achievement. Later, these trends, together with the Greeks who moved to the West, would greatly contribute to the development of the Western European Renaissance.

Historical scale

The empire survived the fight against the crusaders: on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, opposite the defeated Constantinople, the Romans retained their territory and proclaimed a new emperor. Half a century later, the capital was liberated and held out for another 200 years. However, the territory of the revived empire was practically reduced to the great city itself, several islands in the Aegean Sea and small territories in Greece. But even without this epilogue, the Roman Empire existed for almost a whole millennium. In this case, one can not even take into account the fact that Byzantium directly continues the ancient Roman statehood, and considered the founding of Rome in 753 BC its birth. Even without these reservations, there is no other such example in world history. Empires last for years (Napoleon's Empire: 1804–1814), decades (German Empire: 1871–1918), or at best centuries. The Han Empire in China lasted four centuries, the Ottoman Empire and the Arab Caliphate - a little more, but by the end of their life cycle they became only fictional empires. For most of its existence, the Western-based Holy Roman Empire of the German nation was also a fiction. There are not many countries in the world that did not claim imperial status and existed continuously for a thousand years. Finally, Byzantium and its historical predecessor - Ancient Rome - also demonstrated a “world record” of survival: any state on Earth withstood, at best, one or two global foreign invasions, Byzantium – much more. Only Russia could be compared with Byzantium.

Why did Byzantium fall?

The elder’s younger contemporary Ivan Timofeev, a professional warrior, pointed to other reasons for the fall of the empire: the emperors, having trusted in flattering and irresponsible advisers, despised military affairs and lost combat readiness. Peter the Great also spoke about the sad Byzantine example of the loss of fighting spirit, which became the cause of the death of a great empire: a solemn speech was delivered in the presence of the Senate, Synod and generals in the Trinity Cathedral of St. Petersburg on October 22, 1721, on the day of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, at the acceptance king of the imperial title. As you can see, all three - the elder, the warrior and the newly proclaimed emperor - meant similar things, only in different aspects. The power of the Roman Empire rested on strong power, a strong army and the loyalty of its subjects, but they themselves had to have a strong and true faith at their core. And in this sense, the empire, or rather all those people who made it up, always balanced between Eternity and destruction. The constant relevance of this choice contains an amazing and unique flavor of Byzantine history. In other words, this story in all its light and dark sides is a clear evidence of the correctness of the saying from the rite of the Triumph of Orthodoxy: “This apostolic faith, this paternal faith, this Orthodox faith, this faith establish the universe!”

In contact with

Less than 80 years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium as the historical, cultural and civilizational successor to Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The Eastern Roman Empire received the name “Byzantine” in the works of Western European historians after its fall; it comes from the original name of Constantinople - Byzantium, where the Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city “New Rome”. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek "Romeans", and their power - the "Roman ("Roman") Empire" (in Middle Greek (Byzantine) language - Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Romaíon) or briefly "Romania" (Ῥωμαν ία, Romania) . Western sources throughout most of Byzantine history referred to it as the "Empire of the Greeks" due to its predominance of Greek language, Hellenized population and culture. In Ancient Rus', Byzantium was usually called the “Greek Kingdom”, and its capital was Constantinople.

The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The empire controlled its largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. Subsequently, under the pressure of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost its lands.

After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some strengthening in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the 11th century, during the Seljuk invasion and defeat at Manzikert, strengthening during the first Komnenos, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatatz, restoration empire by Michael Palaiologos, and finally, its final destruction in the middle of the 15th century under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks.

Population

The ethnic composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely diverse: Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, South Slavs. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the end of the 6th century), some peoples remained outside its borders - at the same time, new peoples invaded and settled here (Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, Arabs in the 7th-9th centuries, Pechenegs, Polovtsians in the 11th-13th centuries, etc.). In the 6th-11th centuries, the population of Byzantium included ethnic groups from which the Italian nation was later formed. The predominant role in the economy, political life and culture of Byzantium in the west of the country was played by the Greek population, and in the east by the Armenian population. The official language of Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries was Latin, from the 7th century until the end of the empire - Greek.

State structure

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at its head. From the 7th century the head of state was more often called autocrat (Greek. Αὐτοκράτωρ - autocrat) or basileus (Greek. Βασιλεὺς ).

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the Praetorian Prefect of the East and the Praetorian Prefect of Illyricum. Constantinople was allocated as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople.

For a long time, the previous system of government and financial management was maintained. But from the end of the 6th century significant changes began. The reforms are mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and predominantly Greek culture of the country (introduction of the positions of logothete, strategos, drungaria, etc.). Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have spread widely; this process led to the establishment of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and struggles for the imperial throne did not stop.

The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry and the chief of the cavalry, these positions were later combined; in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Strateg Opsikia). In addition, there was a master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strategos of Anatolica), a master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, a master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Strategos of Thrace).

Byzantine emperors

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for almost a thousand years; in historiography from that time on it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium was characterized by mobility. At all times, a person from the bottom could make his way to power. In some cases it was even easier for him: for example, he had the opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. Thus, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant and then a horse trainer in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapinus was also a descendant of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure was closer to the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of Byzantium's existence, it became mainly mercenary and had a rather low combat capability.

But a system of military command and supply was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, a variety of technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is being built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet, which the invention of “Greek fire” helps to gain supremacy at sea, greatly increases. Fully armored cavalry - cataphracts - was adopted from the Sassanids. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistae and catapults are disappearing, replaced by simpler stone throwers.

The transition to the femme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat effectiveness. The recruitment system was changed to a typically feudal one, when the nobility was obliged to supply military contingents for the right to own land.

Subsequently, the army and navy fell into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the empire’s existence they became purely mercenary formations. In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60 thousand inhabitants, was able to field only a 5 thousand army and 2.5 thousand mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Rus and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. Since the 11th century, ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads.

After the era of Viking campaigns came to an end at the beginning of the 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as from Viking-conquered Normandy and England) flocked to Byzantium across the Mediterranean Sea. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian Guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the Crusaders in 1204 and was defeated when the city was captured.

Photo gallery

Start date: 395

Expiration date: 1453

Helpful information

Byzantine Empire
Byzantium
Eastern Roman Empire
Arab. لإمبراطورية البيزنطية or بيزنطة
English Byzantine Empire or Byzantium
Hebrew האימפריה הביזנטית

Culture and society

The period of reign of the emperors from Basil I of Macedon to Alexios I Komnenos (867-1081) was of great cultural significance. The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the works of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet, the Glagolitic alphabet, appeared, which led to the emergence of the Slavs’ own written literature. Patriarch Photius put barriers to the claims of the popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to ecclesiastical independence from Rome (see Division of Churches).

In the scientific field, this period is characterized by extraordinary fertility and diversity of literary enterprises. Collections and adaptations of this period preserve precious historical, literary and archaeological material borrowed from writers now lost.

Economy

The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In cities, artisans and merchants united into classes. Belonging to the class was not a duty, but a privilege; entry into it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (city governor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were compiled in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the Eparch.

Despite a corrupt management system, very high taxes, slave-owning and court intrigue, the economy of Byzantium was for a long time the strongest in Europe. Trade was carried out with all former Roman possessions in the west and with India (via the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east. Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the country's wealth caused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

Science, medicine, law

Throughout the entire period of the existence of the state, Byzantine science was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire. At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arab and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.

In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in early Renaissance Italy. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

Right

The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great influence on the development of jurisprudence. Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Rus'.

Byzantium, Byzantine Empire - the name of this illustrious state is traditionally associated with Greek culture, although it arose as the eastern part of the Roman Empire and initially its official language was Latin, and the ethnic composition was more than diverse - Greeks, Italians, Copts, Syrians, Persians, Jews, Armenians, Asia Minor peoples. They all called their state Roman, that is, Roman, and themselves - Romans, Romans.

Although Emperor Constantine the Great is considered the founder of Byzantium, this state began to take shape 60 years after his death. Emperor Constantine, who stopped the persecution of Christians, laid the foundation of the Christian empire, and the period of its formation stretched for almost two centuries.

It was Constantine who moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the ancient city of Byzantium, after which many centuries later the empire began to be called Byzantine. Actually, for more than a thousand years of its existence, it bore the name of the Eastern Roman Empire, and in the 15th century, historians renamed it the Byzantine Empire to distinguish it from the first Roman Empire, which ceased to exist in 480. This is how the name “Byzantium” arose and firmly established itself as a term denoting the great Christian state that existed from 395 to 1453.

Byzantium had a huge impact fundamental influence on the formation of European culture, for the enlightenment of the Slavic peoples. It is impossible to forget that the Orthodox traditions as we know them now, with the beauty of divine services, the splendor of churches, the harmony of chants - all this is a gift from Byzantium. But Byzantine culture is not limited to a religious worldview, although it is all imbued with the Christian spirit. One of its striking features was the refraction of the entire wealth of knowledge accumulated by humanity in ancient times through the prism of Christianity.

In addition to the Theological School, there were two Universities and a Law School in Constantinople. Prominent philosophers, writers, scientists, doctors, astronomers, and geographers emerged from the walls of these educational institutions. Significant discoveries and inventions of the Byzantines in various applied fields. For example, Leo the Philosopher created an optical telegraph, with which it was possible to exchange information and warn of dangers.

From Byzantium came the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles brothers Cyril and Methodius, thanks to whose educational activities the Slavic peoples acquired their alphabet and writing, and received translations of the Holy Scriptures and liturgical books into their native language. That is, all Slavic, including Russian, culture with its world-famous literature and art, has Byzantine roots.

Attempts to solve internal problems through the adoption of new laws and legal norms developed Byzantine jurisprudence, which was based on Roman law. This one the code of laws is still the main one in most European countries.

Having enriched the whole world with its cultural heritage, reaching unprecedented prosperity, Byzantium fell, disappearing as a state, but remaining in history as a unique and unforgettable civilization.

Golden Age of Byzantium

The formation of the Eastern Roman Empire began during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great, who transferred the capital to the small city of Byzantium, calling it "New Rome". The city was called Constantinople by the common people, but officially it did not bear this name.

Emperor Constantine, tired of the constant dynastic wars for the throne that were fought in Rome, decided to make a capital subject only to him. He chose Byzantium, standing at the crossroads of important trade routes from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, which, like any port city, was rich, developed and independent. Constantine the Great declared Christianity one of the permitted state religions, thereby inscribing himself in history as a Christian emperor. But an interesting fact is that during his lifetime, he was not actually a Christian. Emperor Constantine, canonized by the Church, was baptized only on his deathbed shortly before his death.

After the death of Constantine the Great in 337, for two hundred years the young state was torn apart by wars, unrest, heresies and schisms. A strong hand was needed to restore order and strengthen Byzantium. He turned out to be such a strong ruler JustinianI, who came to the throne in 527, but a whole decade before that he was actually in power, being a key figure under his uncle Emperor Justin.

Having conducted a series of victorious wars, Emperor Justinian almost doubled the country's territory, he spread the Christian faith, skillfully conducted foreign and domestic policies, taking measures to combat the economic crisis that arose as a result of total corruption.

The Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea testifies that Justinian “having taken power over the state, shaken and reduced to shameful weakness, increased its size and brought it to a brilliant state.” It is noteworthy that Emperor Justinian's wife Theodora, whom historians call “the most remarkable woman of the Byzantine era,” was his faithful friend, assistant and adviser, and often took on difficult government affairs.

Theodora came from the family of a poor circus caretaker and in her youth, distinguished by her striking beauty, was a courtesan. Repenting of her sinful life, she experienced a spiritual rebirth and began to lead a strict ascetic life. It was then that young Justinian met Theodora and, having fallen in love, married her. This the happy union had a great influence on the Byzantine Empire, beginning her Golden Age.

Under Justinian and Theodore, Byzantium became a center of culture, a “palladium of sciences and arts.” The imperial couple built monasteries and temples, including Constantinople Cathedral of Hagia Sophia of the Wisdom of God.

The Church of Hagia Sophia still remains one of the most majestic works of architecture on earth. Its sheer size is amazing: 77 meters long and almost 72 wide, the height of the temple is just under 56 meters, and the diameter of the dome is about 33 meters. Under the dome, along the entire circumference, there are forty windows, penetrating through which the sunlight seems to separate the dome, and it feels like it is standing on the rays of the sun. In this regard, there was a belief that the dome of Hagia Sophia on golden chains descends from the sky.

Even converted into a mosque, the Church of Hagia Sophia amazes with its grandiose power and beauty. " Here everything is brought into such a wonderful harmony, solemn, simple, magnificent"- wrote the Russian artist Mikhail Nesterov, who visited Constantinople, or as it was called in Russia - Constantinople - in 1893.

The construction of such a building, not to mention the interior decoration, which used marble, ivory, gold and precious stones, was very expensive. All the income of the Byzantine Empire during the five years of construction did not cover the cost of Hagia Sophia.

At the same time, the role of the Church as such was considered by Justinian more as a tool for strengthening the empire; he intervened in church affairs, appointed and removed bishops. Thus, the role of the Church was reduced to serving state interests; it lost its spiritual authority among people, which, instead of strengthening, led to a weakening of the state.

On the one hand, holiness flourished in Byzantium. It is enough to name the three saints Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, who shone at the dawn of the Byzantine Empire, as well as Gregory of Nicomedia, Mark of Ephesus, John the Faster, Philaret the Merciful from the host of famous and not so famous saints of Byzantium, in order to assert - the spiritual life of Byzantium did not fade away and gave birth to holiness. But holiness, as at all times, in the Byzantine Empire was also an exceptional phenomenon.

Poverty, spiritual and cultural squalor of the majority of the population, drowning in gross debauchery and vulgarity, spending time in idleness - in taverns and circuses, excessive wealth of those in power, drowning in luxury and the same depravity, all this was reminiscent of crude paganism. At the same time, both of them called themselves Christians, went to church and theologized. As the Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov said, “ Byzantium had more theologians than Christians" Duplicity, lies and sacrilege, naturally, could not lead to anything good. Byzantium was about to suffer God's punishment.

Ups and downs

The successors of Emperor Justinian I, who died in 565, had to lead constant wars in the West and East to preserve the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Germans, Persians, Slavs, Arabs - this is far from a complete list of those who encroached on Byzantine lands.

By the end of the 7th century, Byzantium occupied about a third of its lands compared to Justinian's empire. Nevertheless, Constantinople was not surrendered; during the trials, the people became more united and ethnically defined. Now the majority of the population of the Byzantine Empire were Greeks, Greek became the official language. Law continued to develop, science and art continued to flourish.

Leo the Isaurian, founder of the Isaurian dynasty, who ruled under the name of Leo III, made the state rich and powerful. However, under him the heresy of iconoclasm arose and developed, which was supported by the emperor himself. Many saints who sacrificially defended holy icons shone forth in Byzantium at this time. The famous hymnographer, philosopher and theologian John of Damascus was punished by cutting off his hand for defending icons. But the Mother of God herself appeared to him and returned the severed hand. Thus, in the Orthodox tradition, the icon of the Mother of God of Three Hands appeared, which also depicts the hand returned to John of Damascus.

Icon veneration was briefly restored at the end of the 8th century under Irene, the first female empress. But subsequently the persecution of holy icons began again, which continued until 843, when the dogma of icon veneration was finally approved under Empress Theodora. Empress Theodora, whose relics now rest on the Greek island of Kerkyra (Corfu), was the wife of the iconoclast Emperor Theophilos, but she herself secretly venerated the holy icons. Having taken the throne after the death of her husband, she patronized the convening of the VII Ecumenical Council, which restored the veneration of icons. For the first time under Theodore, in the Church of Sophia in Constantinople, on the first Sunday of Great Lent, rite of the Triumph of Orthodoxy, which is still celebrated annually in all Orthodox Churches.

At the beginning of the 9th century, with iconoclasm continuing, crushing wars began again - with the Arabs and Bulgarians, who deprived the empire of many lands and almost conquered Constantinople. But then the trouble passed, the Byzantines defended their capital.

In 867 she came to power in Byzantium Macedonian dynasty, during which the Golden Age of the empire lasted for more than a century and a half. Emperors Basil I, Romanus, Nikephoros Phocas, John Tzimiskes, Basil II returned the lost lands and expanded the borders of the empire to the Tigris and Euphrates.

It was during the reign of the Macedonians that the ambassadors of Prince Vladimir came to Constantinople, about which the Tale of Bygone Years tells the following: “We came to the Greek land, and led us to where they serve their God, and did not know whether we were in heaven or on earth: for there is no such spectacle and such beauty on earth, and we don’t know how to tell about it - we only know that God is with the people there, and their service is better than in all other countries.” The boyars said to Prince Vladimir: “If the Greek law had been bad, then your grandmother Olga would not have accepted it, but she was the wisest of all people.” And Vladimir asked: “Where will we be baptized?” They said: “Where you like.” Thus began the history of a new powerful Christian state - Russia, which would later be called the successor of Byzantium or the Third Rome.

In 1019, the Byzantine emperor BasilII conquered Bulgaria. At the same time, it strengthened the economy and gave a new impetus to the development of science and culture. During his reign, the Byzantine Empire reached great prosperity. It is known that Vasily, who received the nickname Bulgarian Slayer for his victories over the Bulgarians, led an ascetic life. He was not married, history has not preserved information about any of his love affairs. He left no offspring, and after his death a fierce struggle for the throne began. The rulers, who succeeded each other one after another, were unable to adequately manage the huge empire, feudal fragmentation began, and central power was rapidly weakening.

In 1057, having overthrown the Macedonian dynasty, Isaac Comnenus ascended the throne, but he did not last long at the head of state. The rulers continued to replace one another, not neglecting meanness, betrayal, and murder. Anarchy grew, the state weakened.

The Byzantine Empire was in a critical state when Alexei Comnenus came to power in 1081. The young military leader seized Constantinople and the imperial throne by force. He successfully led foreign and domestic policies. He appointed either relatives or friends to all key government posts. Thus, power became more centralized, which helped strengthen the empire.

The reign of the Comnenian dynasty, which historians called the Comnenian revival, was aimed at capturing Rome and overthrowing the Western Empire, the existence of which hurt the pride of the Byzantine emperors. Under Alexius Komnenos' son John and, especially, under his grandson Manuel Constantinople became the center of European politics, with which all other states were forced to reckon.

But after the death of Manuel, it turned out that apart from hatred of Byzantium, none of the neighbors, ready to attack it at any moment, harbored any feelings. A deep internal crisis caused by the great poverty of the population, social injustice, and the policy of infringing on one’s own people in favor of foreign merchants broke out in revolt and massacre.

Less than a year after the death of Manuel Komnenos, an uprising broke out in the capital, filling the city with blood. In 1087, Bulgaria separated from Byzantium, and in 1090, Serbia. The Empire was weaker than ever before, and in 1204, Constantinople was captured by the crusaders, the city was plundered, many monuments of Byzantine culture were lost forever. Only a few regions remained under Byzantine control - Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus. In all other territories, Catholicism was roughly implanted and Greek culture was exterminated.

Nicene Emperor Michael Palaiologos, having concluded several political friendly alliances, managed to gather forces and retake Constantinople. On August 15, 1261, on the feast of the Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary, he solemnly entered the capital and announced the revival of the Byzantine Empire. The two decades of Michael’s reign became years of relative prosperity for the state, and historians call this emperor himself last significant ruler of Byzantium.

The foreign policy situation remained turbulent, and in the face of constant danger it was necessary to strengthen the empire from within, but the era of the Palaiologan dynasty, on the contrary, was replete with unrest, internal conflicts and uprisings.

Decline and death of the empire

The constant struggle for the throne, and most importantly, the spiritual crisis of a society that called itself Christian and led a life far from Christian ideals, finally weakened the Byzantine Empire.

In just twelve years, the Ottoman Muslims conquered Bursa, Nicaea, Nicomedia and reached the Bosporus. The fall of Gallipoli to the Ottomans in 1354 marked the beginning of their conquests throughout Europe.

The Byzantine emperors had to seek support in Rome; their ingratiation with the West reached the point that they rejected Orthodoxy by signing a union with Catholics, which not only did not serve the benefit of the state, but only weakened it, both spiritually and morally. The majority of the population did not accept Catholicism, and the internal crisis reached its limit.

Over the next hundred years, the Ottomans captured almost the entire territory of the empire, and Byzantium was now a tiny province on the edge of Europe.

In 1453, on April 5, the Turks approached Constantinople and began its siege, and on May 30, Sultan Mehmed II victoriously entered the city. So the existence of the first Christian, once powerful, Byzantine Empire ended.

It's amazing that not only flourishing, but also falling great Byzantium, which once again proved that the earth and all the works on it will burn(2 Epistle of the Apostle Peter, 3, 10), continues to teach humanity many things. An attempt to build a society on a sinful earth " unity in freedom according to the law of Love", as the Russian philosopher Alexei Khomyakov said, still remains one of the noblest undertakings that has inspired many great people - politicians, philosophers, poets, writers, artists. Is this ideal feasible in a fallen world? Most likely no. But he continues to live in the minds, like a high idea as the pinnacle of the spiritual aspirations of humanity.