Syria is the history of the creation of the state. Syria

Syria or Syrian Arab Republic- a state in the Middle East, in the eastern Mediterranean, bordered by Lebanon and Israel in the southwest, Jordan in the south, Iraq in the east and Turkey in the north. It is washed by the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The area is 185.2 thousand km².

The Ansaria mountain range divides the country into a wet western part and an arid eastern part.

The fertile coastal plain is located in northwestern Syria and stretches 130 km from north to south, along the Mediterranean coast from the Turkish to the Lebanese border. Almost all of the country's agriculture is concentrated here.

Most of the Syrian territory is located on an arid plateau, dotted with the mountain ranges of Dajable al-Ruwaq, Jabal Abu Rujmain and Jabal Bishri. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

In the east, Syria is crossed by the Euphrates River. In 1973, a dam was built in the upper reaches of the river, which caused the formation of a reservoir called Lake Assad.

Climate

Climate in Syria subtropical Mediterranean on the coast and dry continental in the interior. The average temperature in January is from +4..+6°C in the eastern regions to +12°C on the coast, in July - from +33°C to +26°C, respectively. At the end of summer, a hot easterly wind, "khamsin", blows in Syria, sometimes developing into sandstorms.

The best time to travel around the country is in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Population

The population of Syria is 22,198,110 people (2009). The majority of the population is concentrated along the banks of the Euphrates and on the Mediterranean coast. Average life expectancy is 70 years.

Arabs (including about 400 thousand Palestinian refugees) make up more than 80% of Syria's population.

The largest national minority, the Kurds, make up 10% of the population. Most Kurds live in the north of the country, many still use the Kurdish language. There are also Kurdish communities in all major cities.

3% of the population of Syria are Assyrians, mostly Christians, also living in the north and northeast of the country.

In addition, up to 400 thousand Circassians (Adygs) and about 200 thousand Armenians live in Syria, as well as about 900 thousand Turks live on the border with Turkey in the cities of Aleppo (Aleppo), Latakia and in the capital.

Religion

90% of the population of Syria are Muslims, 10% are Christians.

Of the Muslims, 75% are Sunnis, the remaining 25% are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, the number of which has been constantly increasing since 2003 due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.

Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox, 18% are Catholics (mainly members of the Syrian Catholic and Melkite Catholic churches). There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox churches.

About 100-200 Syrian Jews also live in Damascus and Lattakia, the remnants of a 40,000-strong community that almost completely fled to Israel, the United States and South American countries as a result of the 1947 pogroms that began after the announcement of the UN plan for the division of Palestine.

Language

The official and most common language is Arabic. In the northern regions of the country, Kurdish is often used. The most common languages ​​also include Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. In certain areas there are various dialects of Aramaic.

Among foreign languages, the most popular are French and English.

Currency

Currency of Syria- Syrian pound (SYP or S£), often called the Syrian lira. Has denominations: 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 (coins) and 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 (banknotes).

It is almost impossible to pay in foreign currency anywhere. You can exchange it in hotels, exchange offices and banks, where the rate is usually the most favorable. There is no commission for exchanging cash. Private currency exchange is officially prohibited, but in fact is widespread. It is almost impossible to exchange pounds back.

Banks are usually open from 8:30 to 13:00-14:00 from Saturday to Thursday, on Thursdays banks are open only in the morning. Exchange offices are open from 8:30 to 19:00-20:00 on the same days.

Credit cards are accepted by a fairly limited number of establishments: they can be used to purchase air tickets, pay in large stores, in some offices of car rental companies and large hotels. It is almost impossible to get cash from a credit card in Syria.

Traveler's checks are accepted only at the office of the Commercial Bank of Syria, and a commission is charged for cashing them.

Communications

Calling code: 963

Internet domain: .sy

Tourist police - 222-00-00, police - 112, ambulance - 110

Telephone city codes

Damascus - 11, Aleppo - 21, Latakia - 41, Hama - 33, Homs - 31

How to call

To call from Russia to Syria, you need to dial: 8 - dial tone - 10 - 963 - area code - subscriber number.

To call from Syria to Russia, you need to dial: 00 - 7 - area code - subscriber number.

Landline communications

Payphones are located in all public places and operate using both cards and coins. You can call abroad from hotels (through operators) and from specialized call centers (calls from most hotels are usually 25% more expensive).

mobile connection

Mobile communications in Syria are GSM 900/1800 standard.

Internet

The Internet in Syria is subject to censorship; access to some sites, for example, Facebook.com or Youtube.com, is prohibited.

Shopping

Shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 14:00 and from 16:30 to 21:00. Many private shops operate according to their own schedule. Many purchases can be made in the markets, the best of which are in Damascus and Aleppo. In this case, of course, it is recommended to bargain.

In Syria, many valuable local handicrafts made of mother-of-pearl, wood, fabric, leather and silver are sold. Local souvenirs: spices, silver and gold jewelry, wood products, silk scarves, national costumes, olive oil, sheep skins and sweets.

Unlike other countries, duty free stores in Syria are located everywhere, not just at the airport. Any product purchased in "duty free" must be taken out of the country and used only outside its borders. The item in the store is usually packaged, labeled with the buyer's name, and delivered to the airport in time for the flight's departure, where it is handed over to the buyer.

Sea and beaches

There are numerous beaches along the coast of Latakia. The swimming season in the local shallow, and therefore well-warmed, waters lasts from May to November. The beaches are sandy, comfortable, and well suited for families with children: there are practically no big waves here.

Story

The history of Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Archaeologists have proven that Syria was the cradle of most of the ancient civilizations of the world. Already in 2400-2500 BC. e. the huge Semitic Empire, centered in Ebla, extended from the Red Sea to Transcaucasia.

Syria has come under the rule of the Egyptians, Canaanites, Aramaes, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs and Crusaders throughout its history before eventually falling under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Syria occupies an important place in the history of Christianity - according to the Bible, Paul converted to the Christian faith in Antioch, where the first church was founded.

Islam took hold in Syria in 636, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. At this time, the Caliphate was already a powerful state, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world, already in the 8th century being one of the largest cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.

In the middle of the 13th century, Damascus became the provincial center of the Mamluk Empire. In 1400 Syria was attacked by the Tatar-Mongols. Tamerlane defeated the Mamluk detachments, destroyed Damascus and took all its wealth to Samarkand.

In 1517, Syria came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries. Shortly after defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed.

In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. Faisal of the Hashemite dynasty, who later became the king of Iraq, was declared king. But Syria's independence did not last long. Within a few months, the French army occupied Syria, defeating Syrian troops on July 23 at the Battle of Maysalun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations decided to divide the former Syrian Dominion of Turkey between Great Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France received the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon (the so-called “League of Nations Mandate”).

In 1936, a treaty was signed between Syria and France providing for Syrian independence, but in 1939 France refused to ratify it. In 1940, France itself was occupied by German troops, and Syria came under the control of the Vichy Regime (governor General Denz). Nazi Germany, having provoked the rebellion of Prime Minister Geilani in British Iraq, sent units of its air force to Syria. In June - July 1941, with the support of British troops, units of the Free French (later renamed Fighting France) led by generals De Gaulle and Catroux entered Syria during a bloody conflict with Denz's troops. General De Gaulle in his memoirs directly indicated that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to German plans to invade the USSR (as well as Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete), since they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of military operations .

On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French troops were evacuated from Syria.

The president of independent Syria was Shukri al-Quwatli, who fought for the country's independence under the Ottoman Empire. In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. The main political forces were the pro-presidential National Socialist Party of Syria (currently active only in Lebanon), the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party and the Communist Party of Syria, which was then underground.

In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war started by an alliance of Arab states.

On March 15, 1956, an agreement on collective security against possible Israeli aggression was concluded between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

On February 22, 1958, in the wake of the popularity of the pan-Arab movement, Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic with its center in Cairo. The president of the new state was the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, but Syrians also held many important positions. However, Nasser soon dissolved all Syrian political parties. In Syria, large-scale nationalization of agriculture began, and then industry and the banking sector. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, Syria again declared independence. Nasser decided not to resist the separatists, so the UAR lasted only 3 and a half years.

After Syria left the confederation, the country was led by liberal Nazim Al-Qudsi. He returned many nationalized enterprises to their former owners. On March 28, 1962, a coup took place in the country again under the leadership of the same group of army officers. Al-Qudsi and his prime minister were arrested. After 5 days, supporters of the previous regime overthrew the interim government, and Al-Qudsi again became the president of the country.

On March 8, 1963, a military coup took place in Syria again, as a result of which the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), which is sometimes called “Baath” (Ar. “revival”), came to power.

In 1964, a new constitution was adopted, in which the leading role of PASV was enshrined. The country was led by Amin Hafez, who began radical socialist reforms. In particular, the nationalization of the main sectors of the economy was carried out again.

On February 23, 1966, Syria was shocked by the fifth coup in 4 years led by Salah Jedid and Hafez al-Assad. Amin Hafez was overthrown, but the PASV remained in power, and Syria's socialist path of development remained largely unchanged.

In November 1970, as a result of the “corrective movement” in the PASV, led by H. al-Assad, Saleh Jedid’s group was removed from power. Thus, Syria became the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR provided Syria with assistance in modernizing its economy and armed forces.

In 1967, during the Six Day War, the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Syria unsuccessfully attempted to recapture them. By decision of the UN Security Council at the end of the 1973 war, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. The Golan Heights are currently controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.

In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered this country in order to stop the civil war. The war ended in 1990, when a government was established in Lebanon that maintained friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005 after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988.

After the death of Hafez al-Assad on June 10, 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad became president.

According to some reports, during the Israeli-Lebanese war in 2006, Syria supplied weapons to Hezbollah. This, in particular, is related to Syria’s still strained relations with some Western countries.

Golan Heights

The territory of the Golan Heights makes up the Syrian province of Quneitra with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli troops captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces until 1981. In 1974, the UN Emergency Force was introduced into the region. A demarcation line was drawn directly along the eastern border of Quneitra province and a demilitarized zone was created. The UN Disengagement Observer Force is based in the area.

In 1981, the Israeli Knesset passed the Golan Heights Law, which unilaterally declared Israeli sovereignty over this territory. The annexation was declared invalid by the UN Security Council Resolution of December 17, 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.

The city of Katzrin became the center of the Israeli Golan. The majority of the non-Jewish population in the Golan are Druze who retain Syrian citizenship (they are given the right to obtain Israeli citizenship). In Syria they enjoy some privileges, in particular, they are guaranteed free higher education.

In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze, 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites. The largest settlement in the area is the Druze village of Majdal Shams (8,800 people). Initially, only UNDOF personnel had the right to free movement between Syria and Israel. But in 1988, Israeli authorities allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into Syria so that they could visit the Temple of Abel, located in the neighboring province of Dara. Also, since 1967, Druze brides who decide to marry a Syrian are allowed to cross over to the Syrian side, and they already lose the right to return.

Syria and Israel are de jure in a state of war, since a peace treaty between these countries has not yet been signed.

In August 2007, Israel began a phased reduction in its military presence in the Golan for the first time since 1967.

The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the colonies of Assyria, derived from the Semitic word "Sirion". The area on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea south of Cilicia, between Egypt and Mesopotamia, including Commagene, Sophene and Adiabene, is described by Pliny the Elder as “former Assyria.” By the time Pliny completed his major work, Natural History, the region had been divided by the Roman Empire into several provinces: Judea (later Palestine, modern Israel, Palestine and part of Jordan), Phenicia (modern Lebanon), Mesopotamia and Hola. Syria.

Entry into Syria will be denied to Israeli citizens and travelers with any evidence of visiting Israel (including passport stamps that are placed in tourists' passports when crossing the land borders of Egypt (Jordan) and Israel). If you have an Israeli stamp in your passport, you will need to get a new passport or choose another country to travel to.

The best time to travel around the country is in the spring, from March to May, or in the fall, from September to November, when weather conditions are most favorable. The beach season lasts here from May to November.

Hospitality is one of the most important Syrian traditions. Such an invitation should not be refused so as not to offend the host - in most cases such invitations are made with all the heart. It is considered impolite to refuse an offer of coffee.

Women traveling alone may receive too much attention from Syrian men. However, this attention is usually limited to glances or weak attempts to engage in conversation.

Syrians, like all Arabs, eat with their right hand. It is considered appropriate to take food from a dish with your hand or pick up sauce from a plate with a flatbread. It is not customary to eat while standing or on the go, or to look into the face of a person eating. Bread is usually broken by hand. You should also take food, money and things with your right hand.

When shaking hands, you should not look into the eyes of your interlocutor, and you should not keep your other hand in your pocket or vigorously wave it in the air (especially with a cigarette). You cannot walk around those praying in front. Shoes should be removed when entering mosques and houses.

Photographing government institutions, palaces, military and transport facilities is prohibited. In Christian churches, you must ask permission before filming (usually there should be no objections). But there’s no point in even asking in mosques: you can’t take pictures there. You should also not take photographs of local women without permission. Documents (or better yet, photocopies of them) should always be carried with you.

In addition, while in Syria, do not forget about the hot climate and active sun: you need to use sunscreen, drink more fluids and protect your eyes with sunglasses.

Local tap water is usually chlorinated and is relatively safe to drink, but it is still better to drink bottled water.

The Koran prohibits the consumption of alcohol, but in Syria this issue is practically not raised. Alcoholic drinks can be purchased at any store, restaurant or bar, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. Restrictions on the sale of alcohol are introduced during Ramadan.

Since the fall of 2009, there has been a ban on smoking in public places in Syria. Smokers caught with a cigarette or pipe in cafes, bars and restaurants now face a fine of 2,000 Syrian pounds ($46). The ban also applies to hookah smoking. Owners of establishments on whose premises violators are caught will also be fined, and in some cases even prosecuted. In addition, a number of restrictions on advertising of tobacco products have been introduced.

The country, although socialist, is Muslim, so you need to dress accordingly. Clothes should be modest. In Damascus and in cities near the coast they still turn a blind eye to this, but in conservative cities in the center of the country, and even more so in the outback, they treat inappropriate outfits with obvious hostility. And in Hama they may even throw stones at you. No tight clothing! Women should cover their arms and legs. Men will have to give up shorts and sleeveless T-shirts.

It is best to avoid political conversations with “locals” to avoid possible problems. Problems may arise, first of all, among the “locals” - since there are many plainclothes police officers and informants (snitches) around.

In any major city in Syria there is a Tourist information center, where you can get all kinds of information and free maps of the country and its individual parts. In Damascus, Tourist information is located opposite the Russian Cultural Center, on 29 May Street, the main street of the city. In Aleppo, you will find the Tourist information center near the Central Bank, on the edge of Alrais platz.

How to get to Syria

Attention! Currently, almost all international air and rail communications with Syria have been suspended due to the protracted civil war in that country.

By plane

There are direct regular flights between Russia and Syria. Moscow and Damascus are connected by regular flights of Aeroflot (on Thursdays and Sundays from Sheremetyevo-2) and Syrian Airlines (on Tuesdays and Saturdays from Vnukovo). Flight time is about 3.5 hours.

Many European airlines also fly to Syria.

Flights to Damascus from Almaty, Kyiv and Minsk are operated by Turkish Airlines.

By train

Weekly trains run from Aleppo to Istanbul (Turkey), from Damascus to Baghdad (Iraq) and Tehran (Iran) via Aleppo, as well as to Amman (Jordan). Fares to Istanbul and Tehran range from $45 to $70 one way in a premium category carriage. The cost of travel to Jordan is about $5.

At the same time, going to Amman by train can only be recommended to fans of rail travel who have a significant amount of free time. We are talking about an ancient narrow-gauge line (Hijaz Railway), built by the Turks. The average speed of the train is 30 km/h, so the distance between the two capitals (300 km) is covered all daylight hours with a transfer in the border town of Daraa (trains depart from Damascus at 8 am and arrive at their destination at 10 pm).

The Daraa - Amman train departs once a week on Saturdays at 18.00. The cost of travel by train is slightly lower than by bus (train - $5, bus - about $7-8), and the time spent on the bus is half as much. However, it is best to travel to cities such as Istanbul and Tehran by train.

By bus

Damascus and Aleppo have good bus connections with neighboring countries.

From Aleppo there are buses to Turkish Hatay (Antakya) and Istanbul, as well as to Beirut, Cairo and Baghdad. From Damascus you can get by bus and minibus to Beirut, Jordanian Amman with Irbid and Iraqi Baghdad. The cost of travel on border transport from Damascus is: Beirut (up to 20 times a day) - $8-10 by minibus and $4-5 by bus, Amman (10-15 times a day) - $10 by minibus and $8 by bus.

In addition, there are minibuses from Damascus and Aleppo to major cities of neighboring countries: Tripoli (Lebanon), Irbid (Jordan), Antakya (Turkey) and many others.

Airport tax when departing from Syrian airports - 32 USD (1500 SYP). Since the summer of 2009, some airlines began to include this tax in the price of an air ticket.

When leaving (land and sea borders) from Syria, a fee of 12 USD (550 SYP) is charged.

The area of ​​modern Syria is 185,180 square meters. km, population – 17.6 million people (2003). In 1990, approximately 340 thousand Palestinian refugees and their descendants lived on its territory. In 1967 approx. 1150 sq. km of Syrian territory in the Golan Heights, southern Syria, were occupied by Israel.

NATURE

Terrain.

The territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea eastward through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, is divided into five natural regions: the Maritime Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syrian Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowlands, the Ansaria Mountains and the valley of the El-Asi River, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.

Primorskaya Lowland

stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria Mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15–30 km.

Western mountain range.

Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, is the Ansaria (En-Nusairiya) mountain range composed of limestones, running parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. wide. 65 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). On the western, highly dissected slopes of the mountains, exposed to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, a lot of precipitation falls. Small rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea originate in these mountains. The rivers have carved out deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop off abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot, dry air masses and receives significantly less precipitation.

At the southern end of the Ansaria ridge there is the Tripoli-Khom intermountain passage. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir river flows in a western direction, which over many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.

Rift zone.

To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khomsky Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle reaches of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Ghab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high soil fertility, irrigated agriculture is developed here.

Eastern mountain range.

Directly adjacent to Al-Gab from the east are the Ez-Zawiya mountains, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460–600 m, maximum elevations reaching 900 m.

To the south of the Ansaria ridge extend the Anti-Lebanon and El-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones, which absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the mountain there are many springs that are used to irrigate the lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the El-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.

Plateau of Eastern Syria.

The larger eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Anti-Lebanon ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed Druz Mountains, rising up to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse material formed from erupted rocks, which makes the economic use of this area difficult. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are heavily weathered, did thick, fertile soils form. To the east of the Zawiya Mountains, the terrain becomes undulating. Its surface gradually decreases from approximately 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the northeast of the country there are medium-high (more than 500 m above sea level) Abd el-Azis mountains (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, cutting to a depth of 30–60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire area, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir-ez -Zor. Their height decreases eastward from 2000 m (Maaloula range north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri Mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used only as winter pastures.

Climate.

The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior regions it is continental and arid. There is little precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant amounts of precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowlands and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.

Western Syria.

The climate of the coastal strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is almost no precipitation. At low altitudes during this season the weather is uncomfortable for humans: during the day the air warms up to 30–35° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are approximately 5° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11° C lower.

Average winter temperatures are 13–15° C, falling below 0° C only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only in the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria Range, where snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the daytime temperature rises to 18–21 ° C.

Eastern Syria.

Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh ranges, the average precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian Desert, which extends to the east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.

The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as is the case in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. Daytime temperatures in July-August often exceed 38° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in the summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, steppe and desert areas are approximately 5.5° C cooler than the coastal zone. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7° C, and Aleb - 6° C. In the north of the steppe zone there are often frosts and snowfall, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Night temperatures in winter drop well below 0°C.

Water resources.

The eastern part of Syria in a south-eastern direction is crossed by the deep transit river Euphrates with large left tributaries Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle reaches of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its flow is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, the large El Assad reservoir was formed with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El Asi (Orontes), which originates in the mountains of Lebanon, flows through the depression of the Syrian graben and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers of the Mediterranean basin, which are fullest during the winter rainy season and become shallow in the summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris River flows 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.

In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, groundwater accumulations and rivers are used for irrigated agriculture, through which a significant share of the country's electricity is generated. Approximately 12% of cultivated land is irrigated, and approx. 20% of them are thanks to wells. On the remaining irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its tributaries - Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow the area of ​​irrigated land and electricity production to be brought to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).

Flora and fauna.

The natural vegetation of Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic influence. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing coniferous and deciduous species in better-watered, sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficus. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.

Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, and citrus fruits are grown in the river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on the gentle slopes. Corn, barley, and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the ridge. Ansaria and others, and in the lowlands of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock (mainly sheep). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under artificial irrigation conditions.

In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear, which are represented mainly by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, and wormwood. Nevertheless, even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by nomads.

The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Among the predators one can sometimes find a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal; in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets; among ungulates there are antelope, gazelle, and wild ass onager. Rodents such as jerboas are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares are also found. Reptiles are typical: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates Valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans). Throughout the country there are larks, hazel grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among the predators there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.

Soils.

Most of the country is occupied by gray soils; chestnut soils are common in the north and west; in the mountains in the west there are also areas of brown, the most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowlands and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum-ridden.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (approx. 90%). By religion they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority are the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the Taurus foothills, north of Aleppo, and on the Al Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jarabulus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni branch of Islam. The majority of Kurds live in rural areas. Many Kurds lead a semi-nomadic life. In the cities (mainly Damascus and Aleppo), Kurds are primarily engaged in manual labor. Wealthy Kurds derive their income primarily from owning real estate. Some Kurds have reached high official positions, but they are practically not involved in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2–3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived in the late 19th century, but most emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians profess Christianity and have retained their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasakah. As a rule, Armenians are traders, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as liberal professions. Turkmens and Circassians also live in Syria. Turkmen profess Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. They originally led a nomadic lifestyle, but are now primarily engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism on the Al-Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or farming in the Aleppo region. Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and native language, although they also speak Arabic. Approximately half of the Circassians lived in the Quneitra governorate, but after the destruction of the administrative center of the same name by the Israelis in October 1973, many moved to Damascus. The smallest among national minorities are nomadic gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).

Demography.

Three general censuses have been conducted in Syria. Its population, according to the first census of 1960, was 4,565 thousand people, including 126.7 thousand Palestinian refugees. The corresponding figures for the 1970 census are 6294 thousand and 163.8 thousand, the 1981 census is approx. 9.6 million and approx. 263 thousand people are refugees. As of July 2003, the population was 17.56 million people. As a result of rapid demographic growth, the majority of the country's population is young: 38.6% are under 15 years old, 58.2% are from 15 to 65 years old, and only 3.2% are older than this age. Girls got married early, women gave birth to an average of 7 children (by 2011 this figure dropped to 2.94 children).

The population continued to increase at a rapid pace: in the 1960s - an average of 3.2%, in the 1970s - by 3.5%, in the 1980s - 3.6% per year, but in 2003 it decreased to 2. 45%. From the 1950s to the end of the 1980s, the birth rate was 45 newborns per 1 thousand inhabitants. At the same time, the death rate fell gradually, from 2.1% in the early 1950s to 0.7% in the late 1980s, largely due to medical advances and sharp declines in infant and child mortality. In 1945–1946, several thousand Armenians left Syria for the USSR, and after the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, most of the 30 thousand Jews who previously lived in the country emigrated there. About 100 thousand Palestinians settled in Syria after Israel captured the Galilee.

Population as of July 2004 – 18 million 017 thousand. Population growth – 2.4 (as of 2004). The birth rate is 28.93 per 1000 people (2004). The mortality rate is 4.96 per 1000 people. Life expectancy for men is 68.47 years, for women – 71.02 years. Estimates of demographic indicators for 2010–2011 give the following figures: the population was 22 million 517 thousand 750 people (estimate July 2010).

Age structure: children under 14 years old - 35.2% (boys - 4 million 066 thousand 109, girls - 3 million 865 thousand 817); from 15 to 64 years old - 61% (men - 6 million 985 thousand 067; women - 6 million 753 thousand 619 people); 65 years and older - 3.8% (men - 390 thousand 802, women - 456 thousand 336) (2011).

Average age: 21.9 years (men: 21.7 years, women: 22.1 years) (2011). Population growth rate: – 0.913% (2011). Fertility rate 23.99 births per 1000 population (2011). Mortality 3.68 deaths per 1000 population (July 2011). Life expectancy is 74.69 years (men - 72.31, women - 77.21 years (2011).

Cities.

The share of the urbanized population in the country increased from 40% in 1965 to 55% in 1998. In the capital of Damascus in 1999, 3 million people lived, in Aleppo, according to data for 1994 - 1.3 million people, in Homs - 750 thousand, in Hama - 450, Latakia - 380, Deir ez-Zor - 260, Hasak - 250, Raqqa - 230, Idlib - 200, Daraa -160, Tartus - 150, Es-Suwaid - 75 thousand people.

Population of the largest cities in Syria as of 2009:
Aleppo – 2.985 million; Damascus - 2.527 million; Homs – 1 million 276; Hama has 854 thousand people. In 2010, 56% of the country's total population lived in cities. The rate of urbanization was 2.5% (in 2010–2015).

Religion.

At least 90% of the population of Syria is Muslim, with 75% Sunni, 13% Alawite, and the rest representatives of the Ismaili Shia and the Ismaili and Druze Shia sects. Sunnism is practiced by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Turks, and Circassians. The Druze are concentrated in the mountainous region of Ed-Druze, southeast of Damascus. Up to 10% of Syrians profess Christianity. The Orthodox Greek-Byzantine and Armenian-Gregorian churches enjoy the greatest influence among Christians in the country. There are also small communities of Jacobites, Maronites, Nestorians, Chaldeans, Protestants and Catholics. Judaism and Yezidis (Yazidis) are extremely small in number. Compared to adherents of other religions, the Christian community has a higher proportion of city dwellers and a more solid stratum of people who have received higher education, as well as representatives of highly paid “white collar” workers and liberal professions.

STATE STRUCTURE

Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by a centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the armed seizure of power by Baath supporters in 1963. From November 1970 to June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez al-Assad, the leader of the military wing of the Baath, who came to leadership as a result of a coup, removing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad served as President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Secretary General of the regional Ba'ath leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, consisting of 250 deputies and serving as a unicameral parliament, elected by universal suffrage for a 4-year term. The last parliamentary elections took place in 2003.

Bodies of central government.

The military, loyal to General Assad, who found themselves in power, soon convened a legislative body - the People's Council, which was given the development of a draft permanent constitution as a priority task. It was supposed to replace the provisional constitution of the country introduced by the Baath in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the Baath and its main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Democratic Socialist Unionist Party and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a referendum. According to the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by universal direct and secret suffrage. All citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote.

Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member electoral districts, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front nominates a common unofficial list of candidates; Formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. The voting results are determined using the majority system of relative majority.

The powers of parliament, according to the constitution, include passing laws, discussing government policies, approving the state budget and plans for socio-economic development, ratifying the most important international treaties and agreements, and declaring a general amnesty. Only the People's Council has the authority to make changes to the constitution and regulations of its activities. At the same time, the Syrian Constitution does not consistently delineate the substantive scope of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.

The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. A candidate for this post is nominated by the People's Council on the proposal of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to receive a majority of votes of those who took part in the referendum.

After the death of Hafez al-Assad in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president of Syria. Born in 1965, he trained as an ophthalmologist in Syria and the UK, and in 1994 returned to the country, where he graduated from the military academy and became his father’s close collaborator and heir. Bashar al-Assad commanded the presidential guard and carried out important diplomatic assignments, called for the fight against corruption and headed the Syrian Computer Society. After the death of Hafez al-Assad in June 2000, parliament had to amend the constitution to lower the minimum age for presidential candidates from 40 to 34 years. He was then elected Secretary General of the Ba'ath and nominated as a presidential candidate, received 97.3% of the votes in a referendum in July 2000 and officially took the presidency.

In accordance with the basic law of the country, the President of Syria monitors compliance with the constitution and guarantees the operation of the state mechanism, develops (in consultation with the government) national policy and controls its implementation. He appoints and dismisses civilian and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and senior diplomats, exercises the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicts, and is the supreme commander in chief. The President has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if ratified by parliament), and conclude and terminate international treaties.

The head of state has the right to convene emergency sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them for consideration by the People's Council. He can veto a law passed by the legislature, which needs at least a two-thirds vote to override it. In emergency circumstances, the president can himself issue decrees during breaks between parliamentary sessions. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. His powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, but for specific reasons such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can hold the president accountable only in cases of high treason.

The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, supervises the implementation of laws, participates together with the president in developing state policies and implements them, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the security of the country, etc. The Prime Minister and ministers are responsible only to the President. Chairman of the Government since 2000 - Mohamed Mustafa Miro.

Local authorities.

Administratively, Syria is divided into 14 governorates (governors), headed by governors approved by the president on the proposal of the Minister of Internal Affairs. Under the governors there are Governorate Councils, 1/4 of whose deputies are appointed by the governor and the Minister of Internal Affairs, and 3/4 are elected by the population for a four-year term. The Minister of the Interior appoints 6 to 10 deputies to these Councils, who serve on the Provincial Executive Committees, which carry out day-to-day oversight of the activities of the local administration.

Municipal Councils direct the activities of city services, issue licenses for business activities, and establish local taxes. These Councils are headed by mayors, appointed by governors of the governorates, and in small towns by the heads of districts. In 1987, Damascus, which had a special capital status, was united with the adjacent governorate of the same name into a single administrative unit.

Political parties.

Arab Socialist Renaissance Party(Ba'ath) is the ruling and dominant party of the country. Formed in 1947 by Michel Aflyak and Salah Bitar as the Arab Renaissance Party (Baath), after merging with the Arab Socialist Party in 1954 it received its current name. The ideology of the party is pan-Arab nationalism. Its main goal is the unification of all Arab states into one, the reunification of the Arab nation, “artificially” divided by the colonialists, and the return to its “former greatness.” The “liberation of Palestine” occupies an important place in the program provisions of the Baath. The main slogan of the party is: “The Arab nation is united, its mission is immortal.” The Baath also proclaims the principles of “freedom” and “Arab socialism.” By the early 1960s, party branches were created in most Arab countries (they became especially influential in Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Yemen, etc.). In February 1963, the Baathists seized power in Iraq and established a brutal dictatorship in the country, but their regime was overthrown by the Iraqi army in November of the same year. In Syria, the Baath Party came to power in March 1963 as a result of a coup d'etat. Soon, a fierce struggle broke out between the pan-Arab and Syrian “regional” leadership of the party. In 1965, M. Aflyak and S. Bitar removed the more “leftist” Syrian leaders who enjoyed the support of young army officers. In February 1966, as a result of a new coup in Syria, the “left” Baath faction came to power, calling for the establishment of “popular control” over production, cooperation with all “true socialist, unionist and progressive elements,” including communists and states of the Soviet bloc, as well as towards the unification of Arab states “on socialist principles”. The victorious group displaced Aflyak and Bitar. The local Ba'ath wing, which came to power in Iraq in 1968, did not recognize the new pan-Arab leadership created by the Syrians, and a split occurred in the party into pro-Syrian and pro-Iraqi wings. Ba'ath sections in various Arab countries divided accordingly. In 1970, the “military” wing, led by Hafez al-Assad, took over the leadership of the Syrian wing of the party. Under the leadership of the Ba'ath in Syria, a bloc of pro-government parties and organizations was created in Syria - the Progressive National Front (PNF). In the People's Council, the Baath holds 135 of the 250 seats. The party's general secretary is Bashar al-Assad, the president of Syria.

Syrian Communist Party(UPC) – former pro-Soviet, created in 1924. In the 1940s and 1950s, it was one of the most organized and influential political forces in Syria, but was greatly weakened as a result of repression during the period of unification with Egypt (1958–1961), and then ousted by the Baathists from those spheres of public life in which communists have traditionally enjoyed influence. In 1972, a split occurred in the UPC: the faction led by Khaled Baghdash agreed to cooperate with the government of H. Assad and joined the PNF, the R. Turki group (“UKP - Politburo”) announced its opposition, and its leaders were later arrested. Then another faction of M. Yusef (“UKP – basic organizations”) emerged from the UPC, which also refused to participate in the PNF.

In 1986, the pro-government faction of the UPC split. It formed the groups of H. Baghdash and Y. Faisal (the latter relied on younger party cadres). There are no serious differences between the two organizations. Both of them remain members of the PNF and have 4 seats in the People's Council.

Arab Socialist Movement(DAS) - formed in 1950 as the Arab Socialist Party (ASP) under the leadership of A. Haurani. The TSA relied on peasants, some workers and shopkeepers and, like the Baath Party, called for the achievement of Arab unity and “Arab socialism.” In 1954 the TSA merged with the Baath. In 1962, after Syria left the state union with Egypt, Haurani and his supporters were expelled from the Baath Party due to their categorical refusal to focus on the restoration of the union state. The organization subsequently split into a number of factions; some of them joined the PNF and the government. The DAS wing cooperating with the government has 4 seats in the People's Council.

Arab Socialist Union(ACC) - one of the “unionist” organizations (followers of the former leader of Egypt Gemal Abdel Nasser). The ACC was formed in 1964 and advocated “Arab socialism” and unification with Egypt. The party split into two factions, one of which became part of the PNF and the Assad government. ACC has 7 seats in the People's Council.

Socialist Unionist Party(PSY) – Nasserist. It is part of the PNF, and in terms of program settings it is close to the ACC and Baath. Has 7 seats in the People's Council.

Socialist Unionist Democratic Party(SUDDP) – Nasserist. Member of the PNF, it has 4 seats in the People's Council.

Syrian National Socialist Party(SNSP) - created in Lebanon in 1932 as a secret organization that was influenced by the ideology and organizational forms of European fascism. The party declared its goal to create a state “Greater Syria”, which was supposed to cover the territory of Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, Palestine and Kuwait. The main forces of the SNSP were in Lebanon, where it enjoyed significant influence, created its own paramilitary forces after World War II and participated in a number of coup attempts. In the early 1960s, a certain evolution occurred in the views of the party leadership. Without abandoning far-right views in general, it borrowed some Marxist and pan-Arabist postulates. At the end of the 20th century. Some factions of the party in Lebanon began to focus on cooperation with the Syrian government. In 2000, the activities of the SNSP were allowed in Syria and they were accepted into the PNF. Has 2 seats in the People's Council.

They are not included in the PNF and operate semi-legally or illegally:

Arab Socialist Democratic Renaissance Party (ASDP) formed in 1970 by adherents of the “left” wing of the Baath Party, led by S. Jedid, removed from power by H. Assad. Its program and main goals are essentially identical to the Baath platform. The party advocated the removal of the Assad regime, not excluding armed methods of struggle.

Syrian Communist Action Party(PKDS) - created in the late 1970s as the League of Communist Action, received its current name in 1980. The party included adherents of “heterodox Marxism”, standing “to the left of the historically established UPC.” Considering the Assad regime “bourgeois” and “anti-people”, the PKDS sought to overthrow it and replace it with a “revolutionary democratic government led by the popular front.” The slogan of “Arab unity” is rejected as “reactionary.”

National Democratic Association– a bloc of opposition parties and organizations. Includes PASDV, PKDS, Arab Revolutionary Workers' Party in Syria, Democratic Arab Socialist Union in Syria(ASS faction), DAS faction and “SKP - Politburo”.

Independently acts National Committee for the Unity of Syrian Communists.

The basis of the Muslim fundamentalist opposition is the Syrian branch of the pan-Arab organization " Muslim Brothers", which emerged in the late 1930s. Since the late 1960s, the radical wing of Islamists led by Marwan Hadid has become active in Northern Syria; in the 1970s, underground cells emerged and began an armed struggle against the Baath regime. The incentive for their anti-government actions was the fact that President Assad’s family and many people around him belonged to the Alawite religious community, whose views differ sharply from orthodox Islam. The Islamists also sought the repeal of the law on agrarian reform, denationalization and the weakening of state control over foreign trade and prices. In June 1979, the Muslim Brotherhood killed more than 60 cadets at a military school in Aleppo, and in 1982 they launched a major uprising in Hama, which was suppressed by Syrian troops. Thousands of people died in the crackdown. After the defeat, the network of “brotherhood” cells in Syria practically ceased to exist, the center of its activity moved to Iraq and European countries. In Damascus, an apolitical association of “brothers” has been preserved.

Judicial system

includes personal status courts, juvenile courts, magistrates' courts, trial courts, appellate and cassation courts. The Court of Cassation in Damascus serves as the highest court, making final decisions on protests and complaints against decisions of all lower courts. Personal status courts are divided into Sharia courts, Druze courts and courts for non-Muslim communities. Magistrates' courts deal with minor civil commercial and criminal cases. More serious cases are heard in the courts of first instance. Courts of appeal operate in the administrative centers of governorates and accept appeals from decisions of lower courts. In addition, there is a system of military courts that deal with cases of crimes committed by military personnel. The appointment, transfer and removal of members of all these courts is within the competence of the Superior Council of Magistracy. The country has a Supreme Constitutional Court, consisting of five judges appointed by the president for a term of four years. This body considers issues related to elections and the constitutionality of laws and decrees adopted by the President and the People's Council. The Supreme Constitutional Court does not have the right to repeal laws adopted in referendums.

Syria also has a High State Security Court and an Economic Security Court. Typically, cases in these courts are heard in closed court sessions.

Armed forces

Syria consists of ground forces, numbering approx. 300 thousand people, air force (Air Force, 80 thousand people), naval forces (Navy, about 4 thousand people) and irregular forces to protect rear facilities, gendarmerie and special security forces involved in protecting the president , government and government agencies. The conscription age for compulsory military service is 19 years, the period of service in the ground forces and air force is 30 months, and in the navy - 18 months. According to the constitution, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president of the country. Since the early 1990s, an estimated 30,000-strong Syrian military force has been in Lebanon, mainly in the Bekaa Valley and around Beirut and Tripoli. According to official data, in fiscal year 1997, budgetary military expenditures amounted to approximately 800 million - 1 billion dollars, or 5.9% of GDP.

Foreign policy.

The first Ba'athist government (March 1963 – February 1966) followed the principles of non-alignment, pan-Arab unity and the construction of an Arab version of "socialism". This government maintained a kind of balance between the military and the civilian wing of the Baath. The situation completely changed in February 1966. Ba'ath founders Michel Aflaq and Salah Bitar were forced to flee Syria as coup leaders Salah Jadid and Hafez Assad sentenced them to death. The new regime was illegitimate and, in order to assert itself, undertook a series of military adventures on the border with Israel, which ultimately led to the Arab-Israeli war on June 5, 1967, as a result of which Syria lost the Golan Heights. In November 1970, Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad became the absolute ruler of Syria, whose power was further strengthened when he became president of the country in March 1971.

On October 6, 1973, Syria, together with Egypt, launched a coordinated attack on Israel. In the early days of the war, the Syrian army achieved some success, retaking the Golan Heights, but Syria ultimately lost even more territory. Thanks to active American mediation, Israel withdrew troops from part of the lands it occupied, as well as from the city of Quneitra in the Golan Heights, which was stipulated by the Syrian-Israeli agreement signed on May 31, 1974, which actually defined the border between Syria and Israel. In June 1976, Syria took part in resolving the internal political conflict in Lebanon and sent troops there as part of the inter-Arab containment forces.

In 1980, Syria signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation with the USSR, which remained in force after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Syria was one of the few Arab countries to support Iran in its long war with Iraq in the 1980s, and continues to be Iran's closest partner.

In February 1987, Syria, which maintained a 25,000-strong contingent of peacekeeping forces in Lebanon, sent an additional 7,000-strong army to the Muslim sector of Beirut to maintain order. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Syria sent troops to Saudi Arabia and subsequently joined the anti-Iraq coalition. In October 1990, Syria took an active part in suppressing Christian protests in eastern Beirut and thereby helped restore order in the Lebanese capital. Syria took an active part in resolving the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

ECONOMY

Production structure.

Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, railway and air transport have been entirely under the control of the state for a long time. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, the service sector, motor transport and housing construction. The annual growth of GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. $58.01 billion, per capita income was $3,300. According to 2003 data, GDP was divided by sector as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry – 29.4% and other services – 42.1%.

Economic growth slowed to 1.8% in 2009 due to the global economic crisis affecting world oil prices and the economies of Syria's key partners. Despite some economic reforms, long-term economic constraints mean declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water resources due to intensive agricultural use.

GDP per capita in 2010 was $4,800 compared to $4,700 in 2009 and $4,600 in 2008. GDP by economic sector in 2010 was distributed as follows: agriculture 17.6%, industry 26.8%, sphere services 55.6%.

Syria is a major center of maritime and land trade. In this regard, an industry such as warehousing has developed. Large oil storage facilities were built at the oil refineries in Homs and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. The storage areas for metals and building materials were significantly increased, and large elevators were built.

Labor resources.

About 30% of Syria's working-age population is employed in the public sector; the state's share as an employer began to decline since the late 1980s, when measures were taken to reduce budget expenditures, including the maintenance of government institutions. In agriculture, where 52% of the total workforce was employed, this figure dropped to 20% in 1995. At the same time, in industry (including construction, energy, gas production and water supply) it increased from 20% to 34%, and in the service sector - from 28% to 42%. Many Syrians are employed in the public sector - in institutions or enterprises. Both urban and rural residents are often involved in seasonal activities. It is estimated that in 1998 unemployment covered 12–15% of the working population. Since the 1970s, many skilled workers and specialists have migrated to the oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf in search of work. The migration process contributed to a decrease in unemployment and an influx of foreign currency into the country, but at the same time created a serious shortage of qualified personnel.

In 2008, 17% of the total labor force was employed in agriculture, 16% in industry and 67% in services. The unemployment rate was 8.3% (2010).

Mining industry.

Syria is not a major oil producer. Nevertheless, since 1974, oil has become the most important source of export earnings. The most developed oil and gas industries. In the mid-1990s, the country produced approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east in the Euphrates Valley, the exploitation of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where particularly high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s–1990s. Natural gas is also being extracted, including that associated with oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

Syria is the largest producer of phosphorites, the deposit of which is being developed in the Khneifis area near Tadmor. Their reserves are estimated at 1 trillion. t with phosphate content from 22 to 72%. Approx. 15 million tons. Most of the production is exported, the rest is used domestically for the production of fertilizers. Deposits of iron ore (Raju, Bludan - Zabdani, El-Kadmus), natural asphalt (near Latakia), chromium, uranium, manganese, lead, copper, sulfur, asbestos, dolomite, limestone, tuff, and basalt have also been explored. Mining of table salt (Tadmor, Jerud, El-Jabbul deposits) and sulfur is carried out. There are many hot mineral springs located and exploited in Syria.

Energy.

More than half of the electricity (57%) is produced at hydroelectric power plants, and 43% at thermal stations using oil as fuel. The largest hydroelectric power plants were built in the mid-1970s, when the Euphrates Dam was built. Their estimated capacity is 800 million kW, but due to technical difficulties and low water levels, they are less than half loaded. In 1998, 17.5 billion kW of electricity was produced. In 1998, 17.5 billion kW of electricity were produced, in 2007 – 36.5 billion kW of electricity.

Manufacturing industry.

In the early 1990s, all leading industries, primarily heavy industry, were at the disposal of the state. The state also owned key enterprises in the food, sugar, textile industries, as well as in the production of building materials, plastics, glass, chemical fertilizers, tobacco products and in the assembly of televisions from imported parts. Among the most developed are the oil refining, electric power, food, textile, chemical, electrical industries and the production of building materials.

Measures to modernize infrastructure and increase the capacity of the domestic market indirectly contributed to the development of private entrepreneurship. Its position has especially strengthened in the production of textiles, clothing, leather goods, paper, soap and chemicals. The private sector began producing electrical goods, including refrigerators, and manufacturing equipment, as well as import-replacement products such as cosmetics and detergents. Most private industrial enterprises are small, employing fewer than 10 people, usually family members.

Agriculture.

Agriculture employs approx. 50% of the economically active population. Agriculture produces most of the food consumed in the country and a significant share of raw materials for industry, in particular cotton and sugar beets.

Arable land covers approx. 30% of the country's area. It is a narrow coastal strip with fertile soils and high humidity, where fruits, olives, tobacco and cotton are grown; the valley of the El-Asi River, where a variety of crops are cultivated under irrigated conditions; a semi-arid highland that stretches from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the Turkish border, north of Aleppo, and reaches in the east to Hasakah, where a significant part of Syrian wheat and barley is produced on rain-fed, and cotton is produced on irrigated wedge; Euphrates Valley.

The main grain crops – wheat and barley – occupy approx. 2.5 million hectares, or almost half of all sown areas. Cotton occupies the most important place among industrial crops; it is usually sown on 130–180 thousand hectares, depending on weather conditions and prevailing fiber prices. They also grow corn, sugar beets for local sugar refineries, millet, legumes, fruit and oilseeds. The livestock population includes more than 12 million sheep, 1 million goats, 700 thousand heads of cattle and more than 14 million chickens. Livestock farming provides almost a third of agricultural products.

The largest irrigation project in Syria was the construction of the Euphrates Dam, after which it was planned to double the area of ​​irrigated land by 2000 compared to the late 1970s. However, problems that arose, in particular gypsum in the soil and low water levels in the reservoir (partly due to the large withdrawal of Euphrates water upstream - in the Keban Dam area in Turkey) prevented the achievement of the goal. In December 1992, the European Investment Bank agreed to finance the construction of the At-Torah earthen dam on the river. Es-Sanobar for additional irrigation of 10.5 thousand hectares of arable land in the Latakia governorate.

Transport.

Syria has a well-developed road and railway system. Most highways, along which over 90% of domestic freight and passenger transportation is carried out, have a hard surface. The main highways also serve for the transit of goods from neighboring Arab countries to Turkey and Europe. In the mid-1990s, the length of paved roads was 28 thousand km, and the length of railways was increased to almost 2750 km. By now they have linked the country's main Mediterranean port of Latakia with the port of Tartus and, through Aleppo, with the border city of Qamishli in the northeast of the country. The railway connects Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Damascus, as well as Homs with phosphorite deposits in the vicinity of Tadmor (Palmyra). The largest seaports are Latakia, Tartus and Baniyas. The only airline operating in the country is Sirien Arab Airlines. There are international airports in Damascus and Aleppo, and local airports in Tadmor, Deir ez-Zor, Latakia and Qamishli.

Oil pipelines.

The main pipeline running through the country runs from the oil fields of northern Iraq to the Mediterranean harbors of Baniyas and Tripoli (in Lebanon). Oil was also supplied along this route to the largest Syrian processing center in Homs. Disagreements over transit fees for Iraqi crude oil led Iraq to refuse to use the pipeline from 1976 to 1979, and Syria in turn closed it in 1982 in support of Iran in its war against Iraq. Oil pipelines are also laid from Syrian fields in the northeast to the port of Tartus and to Homs, and oil product pipelines connect processing complexes in Homs and Baniyas with Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia.

Foreign trade and debt.

Syria buys more goods abroad than it exports. Food, industrial products, including cars, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, timber, factory equipment, electrical goods, medicines, paper, as well as significant volumes of crude oil and petroleum products (since domestic enterprises process light oil produced in Iraq and Saudi Arabia) are imported into the country. Arabia). Syrian exports consist mainly of oil and petroleum products, cotton, cotton yarn, textiles and leather goods, phosphates, detergents, perfumes and food products such as pulses, vegetables, and livestock products. The country spends large amounts of money on the purchase of weapons. In the late 1980s, even after a sharp decline in imports of capital goods, petroleum products, grain, sugar and other goods, Syria was forced to resort to external borrowing and rely on foreign aid and remittances from Syrians working abroad to cover the trade deficit. The main foreign trade partners are EU countries, Japan, Iran. Contacts are being established with the countries of Eastern Europe, the USA, and China. There are long-standing ties with Russia. With the help of the USSR, more than 40 industrial facilities were built, an oil refining complex, irrigation structures, railways, high-voltage power lines, and the Euphrates hydropower complex were created.

At the end of 1999, it was estimated that Syria's total external debt was approx. $22 billion, including approx. 10 billion dollars to the states of the former socialist camp, which provided loans to Syria for the purchase of military equipment and for the implementation of large economic projects, including hydraulic engineering construction on the Euphrates.

Banking system.

Banking activities during the reign of Hafez al-Assad were entirely under state control. It included the Central Bank, which issues money (the Syrian pound), and five sectoral banks - Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Cooperative, Mortgage, as well as the People's Credit Bank. Since mid-2000, liberalization of banking activities began.

The country's economic growth slowed to 1.8% in 2009 due to the global economic crisis affecting world oil prices and the economies of Syria's key partners. Damascus has implemented some economic reforms in the last few years, including cutting interest rates, opening private banks, and consolidating all multiple exchange rates.

In 2009, a stock exchange was established in Damascus. In addition, the President signed legislation encouraging corporate ownership reform and allowing the Central Bank to issue Treasury bills and government debt bonds.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Social structure of the population.

The majority of the country's inhabitants are industrial and agricultural workers and members of their families, slightly less than half of the total population are villagers and a very small proportion are nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Peasants living in villages work on their own or rented land, but many are forced to be content with hired agricultural work. The government is taking steps to improve living standards in rural areas: roads and schools have been built and an extensive electrification program has been implemented.

Lifestyle.

The diet of rural residents consists mainly of bread, rice, dairy products, cheese, olives and onions. Pumpkin, peas, watermelon, figs, dates and grapes are added to them, and on holidays meat. Landowners with higher incomes, as well as qualified specialists and traders in cities, eat better and regularly have meat dishes in their diet. The most famous dishes of the national cuisine: kibbeh (minced veal in a wheat shell), meshvi (spit-roasted lamb), hummos (mashed large peas) and kunafa (sweet dough dish with cheese, cream and nuts, drenched in syrup).

The urban population from the middle and upper classes prefers to wear European clothes, while in rural areas they wear long clothes with traditional headdresses. Houses in villages in northwestern Syria are made of clay and straw in the shape of beehives; Dwellings in the southern and eastern regions are built of stone, which is also typical for wealthy urban areas. The middle class of city dwellers live in apartment buildings built from cinder block structures and reinforced concrete, while the poor often settle in vacant lots, where they build shacks from scrap materials - sheet metal and corrugated iron.

Bedouins travel on traditional annual routes within their tribal territories, freely crossing state borders. Semi-nomads who breed sheep and goats move their herds in the winter, but in the summer they switch to a sedentary lifestyle and turn to agriculture. Both of these groups live in felt tents, and their diet contains much more milk and meat than the peasants.

Traditionally, the headman was in charge of all the affairs of the village. The heads of other households served as his advisory body. In the village, family and religious values, respect for the elderly, hospitality and generosity are preserved, while suspicion of strangers has not been lost. Family ties remain the fundamental basis of social relations. Inheritance occurs through the male line. After getting married, women move in with their spouses. Average city dwellers live in small families in separate apartments, but maintain close contacts with a large circle of relatives.

Marriages are often concluded without prior acquaintance between the bride and groom. The groom has the right to court the bride only after the engagement and only in the presence of friends or relatives. It is customary for Muslims to give a bride price. Christians believe that the groom must provide the bride with a room (or, if funds allow, a separate home). The bride's family, whether Muslim or Christian, is required to collect a dowry, which includes clothing, precious jewelry and household items.

Usually a man has one wife, although Islamic law allows up to four wives and divorce is permitted. However, this procedure is currently being processed through a civil court. For Christians, divorce is difficult, and polygamy is not allowed.

The status of women.

With the exception of middle-class townspeople, in whom each small family has its own home, the newlywed moves to her husband's family, where the authority of her parents reigns. A woman's daily life revolves around the home; It is varied by meetings with relatives, in the village a visit to a well or a current for threshing grain, and in the city trips to the shops. Women dress modestly and almost always go out in a group of two or three people. The use of a face covering was a common practice at one time, but is not common today. Many city women prefer to wear a hijab, a scarf covering their hair, as a symbol of belonging to Islam.

A woman must remain chaste until marriage and faithful to her husband. Bedouins usually get married very early, before the age of 14, rural women and girls from working families - at the age of 14-18, and representatives of the middle and upper classes, regardless of religion - after 18 years. Compared to men, women generally have a lower status in society, which has gradually begun to rise due to their more active participation in public life and changes in legislation. Girls under 15 are not allowed to marry, and women have the right to file for divorce and receive compensation if their husbands unreasonably demand a divorce. If a man wishes to have more than one wife, the judge must make sure that the husband is able to provide decent maintenance for his wives.

Public organizations and movements.

The ruling Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) encourages political and social activity of citizens, facilitating their entry into various public organizations. Among them are the General Federation of Peasants, the General Federation of Workers' Trade Unions, the Union of Revolutionary Youth, the National Union of Students, and women's associations. In addition, paramilitary organizations have been created, which involve various segments of the population, whose tasks include civil defense and protecting the country from spies and saboteurs.

The main structure of national importance is the army. The country has universal conscription for men over 19 years of age.

Trade unions cover approximately 17% of those employed outside of agriculture. Most union members work in government agencies, construction, textiles and transport. The largest trade unions are in Damascus and Aleppo. The government stimulates and assists trade unions by providing them with the opportunity to participate in the management of state-owned enterprises.

Social Security.

A number of social services are provided by voluntary charitable organizations, which are under the control of the relevant ministries. Help for low-income citizens falls mainly on the shoulders of relatives.

CULTURE

Education system.

Schools and higher education institutions are under the control of the relevant ministries. Primary education is free and compulsory. All children are required to attend six years of primary school. After graduation, they can enter secondary school, which consists of two levels with three years of study in each: preparatory (junior secondary) and complete secondary. To enroll in public secondary schools at both levels, where education is also free, you must pass entrance exams.

Some children continue their education in private schools, funded in part by foreign grants, and in UN-run schools for Palestinian refugee children. Textbooks, curricula and the level of teaching in the private sector are controlled by the Ministry of Education.

There are four universities in the country: in Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (Tishrin) and Homs (Al-Baath). Of these, the oldest and largest is the capital one, founded in 1923 and numbering 81 thousand students in the mid-1990s. The largest University of Aleppo, opened in 1960, has a student population of approx. 60 thousand people. There are several technical training institutes.

Museums and historical monuments.

The National Museum of Northern Syria in Aleppo contains sculpture, jewelry and household utensils from the Sumerian, Hittite, Assyrian and Phoenician periods, as well as monuments from Hellenistic, Roman and Arab cultures. On the Mediterranean coast in the Latakia region are the ruins of Phoenician city-states, the most famous of which, Ugarit, was discovered during excavations of the Ras Shamra hill.

Roman heritage can be seen through theatrical performances held every summer as part of a festival in the city of Busra al-Hariri in southern Syria.

In the west of the country, roads, canals, dams and aqueducts have been preserved from this period, some of which are still in use today. Among the architectural monuments of Damascus, the Umayyad Mosque (built in 705–715), the National Museum, and the Azema Palace (now the Museum of Folk Art), which displays household items and clothing of the 18th century, are especially famous. and modern handicrafts from various parts of the country, the medieval dervish shelter of Sulaymaniyah, the mausoleum of Salah ad-Din, the house of St. Ananias, chapel of St. Pavel.

Aleppo has now become a commercial and industrial center, while maintaining its medieval appearance. The citadel, a remarkable example of Arab military architecture, rises above the city. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall. The houses face the streets with blank walls, but have internal courtyards. The minarets of the city's mosques (the most famous is the Zachariah Mosque) were built in different historical periods. The medieval covered markets, stretching for more than 12 km, are impressive with their stone vaults.

The history of Syrian Christianity is reflected in remarkable churches (especially in Aleppo) and tombs. North of Damascus, the Roman Emperor Justinian built one of the Greek Orthodox churches, in which the image of the Mother of God and Child, attributed to St. Luke, was preserved. From the Crusader era, the ruins of the Romanesque castle Krak des Chevaliers (12th century) remain, 65 km west of Homs.

Literature and folklore.

The country preserves the traditions of oral creativity, widespread among nomads and peasants. In villages, poetry improvisation competitions are held, and wandering storytellers are welcome guests in any home.

The process of reviving classical Arabic education began in the 19th century, when American and French missionaries began publishing classical and modern literature in Arabic. Syrians who studied in missionary schools in the West became the creators of the philosophy of Arab nationalism, and Syrian socialism was strongly influenced by thinkers such as Michel Aflaq, Salyah Bitar and Akram Haurani.

Works in Kurdish and Armenian are widely represented in modern Syrian literature and journalism.

Theater.

The art of theater originated in Syria in the second half of the 19th century. The revived theater movement in the 1960s led to the creation of the National Theater, which staged classical and modern works by Arab and foreign authors (Molière, Dürrenmatt, Shaw). This theater gave a start in life to such playwrights as Mamdouh Udwan, Saadellah Vannus and others, whose plays were translated into European languages.

Mass media.

The country has the government's General Directorate of Radio Broadcasting and Television and the government's commercial service, Syrian Television. There is a government-run Syrian News Agency. Part of the population receives broadcasts from the Voice of America, BBC, Lebanese and Egyptian radio. Radio broadcasts are conducted in almost a dozen languages.

More than a dozen newspapers in Arabic are published in Damascus and Homs. The most popular of them are “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, 62 thousand copies) – the Baath organ, “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, 55 thousand copies), the government newspaper “Tishrin” (“October”, 70 thousand copies). The Syrian Times newspaper is published in English (12 thousand copies).

Cinema is popular among middle-income citizens. European and American films are widely shown in cinemas, but most Syrians prefer films made in Egypt and India.

Holidays and rituals.

Muslims pray on Fridays and listen to sermons in large cathedral mosques. During religious services, shops are closed and government offices are closed. On Fridays, Syrians go to the market and hold social events. Christians have a day off on Sunday. Ramadan and Hajj are considered the most important Muslim rituals. During Ramadan, which falls in the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, one should abstain from eating during daylight hours. At the end of the month, the holiday of breaking the fast is celebrated - Eid al-Fitr, during which it is customary to visit each other and exchange gifts. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), which Muslims are required to perform at least once in their lives, falls on the twelfth month of the lunar calendar. Upon their return, pilgrims celebrate the festival of sacrifice - Eid al-Adha (Kurban Bayram), accompanied by feasting, fun and the ritual slaughter of sheep. Maulid (birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) and Mi'oraj (Ascension) are widely celebrated. Secular national holidays and memorable dates in Syria are: Independence Day (March 8), Creation Day of the Arab League (March 22), Martyrs' Day (April 6 ) - in memory of the 21 leaders of the Arab struggle for independence who were hanged by the Ottoman governor Kamal Pasha, Evacuation Day (April 17) - to commemorate the final withdrawal of French troops, Day of Mourning (November 29) - to commemorate the handover of the Hatay region to Turkey by France center in the city of Alexandretta (modern Iskenderun).

STORY

The modern Syrian state emerged after the First World War, when France received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain - Palestine and Transjordan. Until this time, the concept of "Syria" included these four countries and small areas in the south of modern Turkey and northwestern Iraq. Thus, the history of Syria before the 1920s refers to a much larger territory (the so-called Greater Syria). The history of the modern state of Syria begins in 1919.

Early stages of history.

The first traces of human presence on the territory of Syria date back to the Early Paleolithic era. In the Neolithic era and subsequent millennia, the country served as a kind of bridge between Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Arabia and Egypt; Neighboring peoples and tribes repeatedly moved into it. Very little is known about the ancient, pre-Semitic population of Syria. The first migration of Semitic tribes (Amorites) occurred at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. During this period, the population was already engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and political power was in the hands of tribal leaders. Egyptian cultural influence penetrated into Syria through the coast of modern Lebanon

Based on excavations in the area of ​​Tell Mardiha, 40 km south of Aleppo, it has been established that ca. 2500 BC there was the capital of the rich and powerful state of Ebla. During excavations, a palace library was discovered, consisting of 17 thousand clay tablets, among them the earliest known bilingual dictionary in the world. The elected head and senate of Ebla, composed of nobles, ruled northern Syria, Lebanon and part of the territory of northern Mesopotamia. His main opponent was the kingdom of Mari in the Euphrates valley. Ebla conducted an active trade in wood, textiles and metal products with the small city-states of the Euphrates Valley and northern Persia, as well as with Cyprus and Egypt. Treaties of friendship were concluded between Ebla, on the one hand, and the Assyrian city of Ashur in northern Mesopotamia and the city of Hamazi in northern Persia, on the other. In the 23rd century BC. Ebla was conquered by Akkad, its capital was razed to the ground.

After 2300 BC Canaanite tribes invaded Syria in several waves. Numerous small states arose in the country, and Phoenician cities established themselves on the coast (Ugarit, etc.). In subsequent centuries, its territory became the object of conquest by neighboring states. Around 1760 BC Syria was conquered by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who destroyed the state of Mari. In the 18th–17th centuries. BC. the country was under the rule of the Hyksos, then the Hittites took possession of the northern regions, and in 1520 BC. The dominance of the kingdom of Mitanni was established. From 1400 BC Semitic tribes of the Arameans began to invade and resettle in the interior of Syria. In the south since the 16th century. BC. there was a city of Damascus, which became a large trading center. It was originally under the rule of the Egyptian pharaohs.

A fierce struggle for Syria unfolded between the Egyptian New Kingdom and the Hittite power. After 1380 BC power over Syria belonged to the Hittites. Pharaoh Ramesses II tried to recapture it, but was unsuccessful in the decisive Battle of Kadesh (in the vicinity of modern Homs) in 1285 BC. But after the collapse of the Hittite power (around 1200 BC), Syria again broke up into a number of small states led by local dynasties.

At the end of the 11th century. BC. Damascus and other areas of Southern Syria were conquered by the king of the Israelite-Judean state, David. However, already in the second half of the 10th century. BC. Damascus regained its independence and became an independent Aramaic kingdom. In the 9th–8th centuries. BC. Syria was conquered by the Assyrians in 605 BC. - Babylonians, in 539 BC. - Persians. In 333 BC Syria came under the rule of Alexander the Great, and after the collapse of the empire he created in 301 BC. - Seleucid dynasty. At this time, the country was experiencing the rise of Hellenistic culture; Syrian cities competed with Alexandria and the cities of Asia Minor.

In the 2nd century. BC. The Seleucid power began to disintegrate, and small states arose on the territory of Syria (the Jewish state of the Maccabees, etc.). In the 1st century BC. the country was attacked by the Parthians and Armenians, and in 64 BC. was conquered by Rome. During the Roman period, the Syrians were famous throughout the Mediterranean for their traders, military leaders, scientists, jurists, priests and officials. In 193–235, the Roman Empire was ruled by the Severan dynasty, immigrants from Syria. The country was one of the centers of the spread of Christianity: the city of Antioch became the residence of the Patriarch of the East.

In the 3rd century. AD, as political fragmentation increased, various kingdoms and tribes fought for the possession of Syria. Some of these states, such as Palmyra, Edessa and Hatra, were Arab and had close political and economic ties with the Bedouins of northern Arabia and Transjordan. First, Roman governors and then the kings of Sasanian Iran fought for the loyalty of the Arab leaders of southern Syria.

Invasion of the Seljuk Turks.

Revival of Syria in the 10th – early 11th centuries. was slowed down by the conquest of its interior by the Seljuk Turks, who came from Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamia. The tribes that invaded Syria were part of the huge Persian Seljuk power, but soon broke their vassal relations with it and created two independent states with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. The Seljuks never penetrated into southern Syria, which remained under the rule of local rulers such as the Tanukids or was a vassal of the Egyptian Fatimids. At the end of the 11th century, as a result of the invasion of the Crusaders from Western Europe, Syria was further fragmented and weakened.

Crusades.

The first European knights landed in Antioch, and then at other points on the Mediterranean coast at the end of the 11th century. By the beginning of the 12th century. Four crusader states were created on Syrian territory: the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Edessa. Following the Christians, the Seljuks rushed into the region. The governor of Mosul, Emir Maudud, prepared a campaign in northern Syria and in 1111 besieged Aleppo. The Seljuks were opposed by local Turkic and Arab leaders, including the ruler of Damascus, who hired assassins to raid the Seljuks. However, after his death in 1128, cooperation between the city authorities and the Assassins ceased, and the new Emir of Mosul, Zengi, immediately invaded the northern regions of Syria and occupied Aleppo. After this, the Zengid dynasty, with the support of Kurdish cavalry hired as a striking force, under the pretext of the impending threat from the crusaders, established control over all of Syria.

One of the Kurdish commanders, Salah ad-din (Saladin), who became famous for his military expeditions to Egypt in 1164, 1167 and 1168, after the death of Nur ad-din ibn Zengi in 1174, became the head of the Zengid state and at the same time opposed the crusaders and the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq. In 1187, his troops defeated the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but were exhausted by the ensuing 3rd Crusade, led by Richard I, Philip II Augustus and Frederick I Barbarossa. Salah ad-din's Ayyubid successors retained control of the interior of Syria, but were forced to fight stubbornly with the Seljuk Konya Sultanate in the north, the Crusader states in the west, and the various Turkic states that existed in the Mosul region and western Persia in the east. In 1260, the Ayyubid state, which had fallen into decline, was attacked by the Mongols under the leadership of Hulagu Khan, who captured Aleppo and Damascus, but was stopped by Mamluk forces led by Sultan Qutuz at the Battle of Ain Jalut in northern Palestine.

Mamluk rule.

Soon Baybars killed Kutuz and took the title of Sultan. The Mamluk dynasty ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250. In the 1260s, Baybars occupied the strategically most important Ismaili fortified points in the mountains of Syria. In the early 1290s, Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-din Khalil captured the last Crusader fortresses on the Syrian Mediterranean coast. Already during the first century of Mamluk rule in Syria, an effective administrative system was created and trade was restored with both the East and the West. The rise of crafts and agriculture began. Syria reached its greatest prosperity when it was ruled by Nasir Nasir ad-din Muhammad (1310–1341). But already under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through Syria and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and North Africa, the decline of the Mamluk power began, which opened the way for the Turkic-Mongol commander Timur (Tamerlane) to capture Aleppo and Damascus. Having occupied them in 1401, Timur began to resettle artisans from these cities to his capital Samarkand. At the same time, the Mamluk sultans in Cairo turned their attention to Arabia and the lands on the shores of the Red Sea, and northern Syria became the object of the claims of the Timurids, Ottomans and other Turks. By the end of the 15th century. The rivalry between the Mamluks, Ottomans and Iranian Safavids escalated into a real war. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in 1516 defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq and easily conquered Syria.

Ottoman period.

For the next four centuries, Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire and was ruled from Istanbul. Soon after the Ottoman conquest, Syria (together with Lebanon and Palestine) was divided into 4 provinces (pashalik) with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus (the latter included all the lands south of Damascus to the border with Egypt) and Saida. Later, several more provinces were created, including Akka. Each province was headed by a pasha, who reported directly to the capital administration. Each pasha ruled the territory under his jurisdiction with the help of local cavalry units and a cohort of civil and judicial officials who enjoyed considerable independence. The order established in the region contributed to the revival in the 16th century. trade and production, but after 1600, as a result of the internecine struggle between peripheral authorities, the central treasury in Istanbul and large trading houses, the economy gradually declined. The expansion of Dutch and English trade in the Mediterranean, South and Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean basin accelerated the decline in economic activity of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 17th century.

In the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut have become the main trading centers of Syria; Colonies of European merchants were established in several cities (most of the trade with Europe passed through their hands). Missionaries, especially Franciscans and Jesuits, began to arrive in large numbers to work among local Christians. Contacts between missionaries and local authorities led to further stratification of Syrian society. Taking advantage of the situation, strong local clans tried to become independent from the central Ottoman government. Internecine fighting intensified, and as a result of one such conflict, the defeated Druze sect moved to a mountainous region southeast of Damascus, called Mount Ed-Druze. At the end of the 18th century. Most of southern Syria came under the rule of the Pasha of Aqq, Ahmad al-Jazzar, who tried to modernize the administrative system and promote economic development.

By the end of the 18th century. European powers began to actively intervene in the internal affairs of Syria, establishing their spheres of influence. Thus, the French supported the Maronites and other Syrian Catholics, the Russians declared their right to defend the Orthodox, and the British offered their friendship to the Druze. In 1798–1799, the troops of Napoleonic France, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on the Syrian coast. Al-Jazzar, with the help of the British fleet, managed to stop the French at Akka and force Napoleon to return to France.

Syria's successes in developing material production and trade attracted the attention of the powerful Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, whose army invaded the country in the fall of 1831. Centralized control of the country was established. Trade and agriculture continued to develop, but they were no longer controlled by the local nobility. Trade with Europe flourished especially. Many trade transactions were carried out through the port of Beirut. Imports of cheap British fabrics led to the decline of local textile crafts in Aleppo and Damascus, while increased demand for olive oil, cotton and silk in European countries and Egypt strengthened the position of Syrian Christian traders.

Clashes between Egyptian troops stationed in Syria and Ottoman forces in Anatolia forced European powers to intervene in 1839 and maintain the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. British and Ottoman agents encouraged the Druze to rebel against the Egyptian army. At the same time, the joint Anglo-Austrian fleet established a blockade of Beirut, which forced the military leader Ibrahim Pasha to withdraw his troops from Syria in 1840. With the restoration of the power of the Ottoman Sultan, Syria came under the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the market for European goods. Their influx destroyed the main handicraft industries and prompted urban merchants and nobles of the country to actively purchase agricultural land. The trend towards their transfer to the ownership of townspeople who did not live on their estates intensified after 1858, when the Ottoman Empire passed a new law allowing the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes.

In the last quarter of the 19th century. in exchange for providing loans to the Ottoman Empire, French companies received numerous concessions in Syria. The French invested in the construction of Syrian ports, railways and roads. As material production declined, anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments grew. European interference in the political life of Syria intensified. This contributed to growing dissatisfaction among the local Arab elite with Ottoman rule. In the 1890s, societies advocating Syrian independence from the Ottoman Empire emerged in Aleppo, Damascus and Beirut. The number of these societies increased rapidly at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The national consciousness of the Arabs became especially acute with the coming to power of the Young Turks after the July bourgeois revolution of 1908 in Turkey. When it became obvious that the Young Turks would primarily defend the interests of the Turkic-speaking population, the Syrians stood at the head of several organizations advocating autonomy for the Arab provinces.

World War I.

With the outbreak of World War I, the Ottoman high command transferred the Arab divisions of the Ottoman 4th Army to Gelibolu (on the shores of the Dardanelles Strait). The head of the civil and military administration of Syria, Jemal Pasha, ordered the arrest or deportation of many leaders of the national liberation movement. However, local support for Arab nationalists continued to grow due to a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy caused by increased taxes for military needs and the British blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. The impetus for the further rise of the movement was the uprising that was raised in Arabia, with the support of the British, by the sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali, who hoped to thus create an independent Arab kingdom. When the Arab army, led by his son Faisal ibn Hussein, entered Damascus in October 1918, it was greeted as a liberator. The city was declared the seat of an independent government for all of Syria. At the same time, Beirut established its own Arab administration. Immigrants from Syria who had gained experience in administrative work in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt were appointed to responsible positions in both cities. Both administrations sent representatives to the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, convened in July 1919, where a resolution was adopted calling for the declaration of full independence for Syria, the creation of a constitutional monarchy led by Faisal, and legal protection for minorities.

While Syrian nationalists advocated autonomy, representatives from Britain and France began discussing the issue of the future state structure of Syria. The agreements between them were embodied in the decisions of the San Remo conference in April 1920, according to which Faisal's government in Damascus was dissolved, France received a League of Nations mandate to govern Syria and Lebanon, and Great Britain to govern Palestine and Transjordan. The news of the decisions of the San Remo conference caused a storm of indignation in the largest Syrian cities, and representatives of the national bourgeoisie invited the large landowner Hashim al-Atasi to head an openly anti-French government. Faisal tried to mediate between the militant nationalists and the French, recognizing the mandate of the League of Nations in July 1920 and using recruits to suppress protests in the cities. When French troops launched a march on Damascus to seize power, a group of volunteers, trying to stop their advance on the capital, took up defensive positions in the Maisalun mountain pass. They were joined by a detachment of the Minister of War Yusuf Azme, who, however, was defeated, and on July 25, French troops occupied Damascus and established control over all of Syria. Faisal was expelled from the country. In 1921, the British declared Faisal king of Iraq, for which they also received a mandate, and made his older brother Abdallah ibn Hussein first emir and then king of the newly created emirate of Transjordan.

French mandate.

The Christian Maronite region in Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the predominantly Muslim Beqaa Valley and the cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida and Sur (Tire). The rest of Syria was divided into five semi-autonomous units: Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (Alawite area), Jebel ed-Druze (Druze area centered on Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (modern Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939). In addition, in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a separate district was allocated, governed directly from the center. The political affairs of these territories were in charge of the High Commissioner in Damascus, who appointed all government and local officials and was responsible for the state of emergency introduced in 1920. The terms of the mandate opened the Syrian market to free access to all member states of the League of Nations. As a result, the country was flooded with overseas goods. Imports played a particularly disastrous role for the Syrian textile industry: between 1913 and 1926, the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3. Due to unemployment, which reached almost 25% in cities, and the influx of a large number of Armenian refugees from Turkey, who were even looking for low-paid jobs, there was a drop in wages.

In 1925, the Druze from Jebel ed-Druze rebelled against the French. In October, the leaders of the national movement organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery shelling of Damascus, which resulted in the death of approximately. 5 thousand Syrians.

In 1926–1927, spontaneous strikes began in Aleppo and Homs, which soon spread to Damascus. The Syrian nationalist party Al-Shabad (The People), which soon established control over the Constituent Assembly, convened by the administration in 1925 to stem the wave of discontent, became popular. The successor of the Al-Shabad party, the National Bloc (the Kutla Wataniya organization), which won the elections to the Constituent Assembly in April 1928, put forward a draft constitution for the country that provided for the reintegration of Syria and left no place in it for the colonial authorities. Soon the French High Commissioner dissolved the Constituent Assembly, and in 1930 a new constitution was introduced, which confirmed French control over the country, but provided for the presence of an elected president and a unicameral parliament.

In 1935, the authorities approved a new labor law, which limited the list of professions whose representatives were allowed to join trade unions and placed workers' syndicates under strict state control. In 1936, the trade unions of Damascus united into a single trade union, and two years later they formed the General Federation of Workers' Trade Unions in Damascus, Aleppo and Homs. The speeches of workers' organizations created the conditions for the adoption by the National Bloc in January 1936 of the "National Pact", which again raised the issue of declaring the independence of Syria and preparing a draft of a new constitution. The publication of this pact coincided with a 50-day general strike that paralyzed markets, schools, public services and factories throughout the country. The French authorities tried in vain to suppress the strike. As a result, the High Commissioner was left with no choice, and he began negotiations with the National Bloc. As a result of the negotiations, an agreement was prepared, according to which the independence of Syria was de jure recognized and a new parliament was convened, but at the same time the broad rights of the French in the military and economic fields were confirmed. The National Bloc won the parliamentary elections in November 1936. In December 1936, the new parliament elected Hashim al-Atasi as president of the country.

The suppression of the Arab uprising in Palestine in April 1936 split the nationalists and the ruling coalition. Dissatisfaction with the moderate position of the National Bloc on the Palestinian issue ultimately led to the alienation of the pan-Arab wing, the center of whose activity was Aleppo. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the French again introduced a state of emergency in Damascus, and in 1939 the High Commissioner suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament and arrested the most active leaders of the national and labor movement. As a sign of protest, the president of the country resigned on July 7, 1939, the parliament was dissolved, the constitution was abolished, and the so-called government was created to manage internal affairs. Board of Directors.

World War II and the Declaration of Independence.

After the surrender of France in 1940, shortages of bread, sugar and gasoline began in Syria. In February 1941, the National Bloc, headed by Shukri Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike continued for two months, forcing the High Commissioner of the Vichy government in France to dissolve the previously appointed Board of Directors. Instead, a Committee was formed led by the moderate nationalist Khaled al-Azem, which ruled Syria until the fall of 1941, when British and Free French troops occupied the country and restored the constitution. An agreement was reached between Shukri Kuatli, the Free French administration and British representatives, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943. They were again won by the National Bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union), which won the overwhelming majority of seats in parliament. The new government included prominent figures of the national liberation movement from Damascus, Aleppo and Homs, but representatives of Hama, Alawites and Druze were left out.

As a result, there was a consolidation of forces opposing the government around the leaders of Hama and the mountainous areas in the west and south of the country. Akram Haurani, a consistent opponent of the landowners who dominated the leadership of the National Patriotic Union, was elected to parliament. Meanwhile, separatists from Alawite and Druze areas advocated for autonomy. Various Islamist organizations began propaganda work among poor artisans and small traders in the cities of the north and among residents of the poorest Damascus neighborhoods, where migrant peasants from the villages settled. The socialists, led by Michel Aflyak, demanded to ensure the economic security of the workers of Damascus and the impoverished small owners of the western and southern regions of the country. There was also a weakening of the positions of the former Syrian leaders as a result of the toughening of the French policy towards their political opponents and the severance after 1944 of trade and financial ties between Damascus and Beirut and Haifa due to the creation of autonomous states in Lebanon and Palestine.

Syria became nominally an independent state in 1945, when the creation of a national army was announced. The country joined the UN and also took part in the creation of the League of Arab States (the first regional organization of Arab countries). However, complete independence was gained only after the final withdrawal of French and British troops, which ended on April 17, 1946. This date became the national holiday of Syria - Evacuation Day.

The collapse of the parliamentary form of government.

With the withdrawal of the last units of French troops from Syria, the unity that existed among the leaders of the national movement was broken, and four forces emerged that began to struggle for power in the country. Large landowners and wealthy merchants, profiting from wartime shortages of grain and manufactured goods, controlled the National Party and Parliament. Independent small-scale producers concentrated in the Alawite and Druze areas, as well as the poor and landless peasants of the central plains, criticized the corruption and nepotism that reigned among previous leaders and advocated the implementation of political and economic reforms. In early 1947, the peasant movement, led by Akram Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Kuatli (the country's president since August 1943) declared a state of emergency and limited the activities of the Haurani Arab Socialist Party and the pan-Arab Arab Renaissance Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah Bitar. This ensured the victory of the National Party candidates in the parliamentary elections in July 1947 and the re-election of Kuatli as president.

Since 1948, the fragmentation of the National Party began along regional lines (Damascus and Aleppo). Both factions began to seek the favor of large landowners who could attract votes from the rural electorate. Political infighting over the government's efforts to introduce constitutional amendments that would allow President Quatli a second term has prevented Syria from confronting the escalating civil war in Palestine. After the declaration of the State of Israel in May 1948, the Syrian brigade invaded the Northern Galilee, becoming the only Arab military unit that managed to advance during the first Arab-Israeli war. However, immediately after the ceasefire in parliament, accusations of incompetence and misappropriation of financial resources were brought against the executive branch. At the end of November, a strike by school and university students escalated into riots. The government was forced to resign, and the chief of the general staff, Colonel Husni al-Zaim, ordered the troops to restore order. A state of emergency was declared in the country.

After Syria gained independence, the creation of its own armed units became a means of improving the economic and social situation of representatives of various minorities, especially the Alawites and Druze, who, starting in 1946, actively enrolled in the military academy in Homs. Young graduates of the academy gradually became more intolerant of the old elite, from which they were separated by class origin and regional affiliation. Growing discontent within the army prompted the high command, many of whom were Sunni urbanites, to advocate social change and align themselves with the leaders of the nationalist movement in neighboring Arab states. In the winter of 1948–1949, on the wave of dissatisfaction among the population and members of parliament with the military defeat in Palestine, a group of senior officers led by al-Zaima overthrew the legally elected government.

Having come to power in March 1949, al-Zaim abolished the 1930 constitution, banned the activities of political parties and began to rule by decrees. In June he proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in the armed forces during a second military coup. The leader of the coup, Colonel Sami Hinawi, announced the restoration of the civilian regime and the holding of elections to the People's Council, which was to create a new constitution. In these elections, which included women for the first time, the parliamentary majority was won by the Aleppo branch of the National Party, which called itself the People's Party after an organization active in northern Syria in the 1920s. Its deputies, many of whom had close trade and financial ties with the northern regions of Iraq, advocated a political union with this country. However, opponents of the union, in particular Haurani and senior army officials, blocked the normal work of the newly elected parliament during the last two months of 1949. As a result, on December 19, young officers led by Colonel Adib Shishekli, in an attempt to find a way out of the situation, removed Hinawi.

Shishekli resumed the activities of parliament and asked it to continue work on the draft constitution. The new constitution, promulgated on September 5, 1950, proclaimed a parliamentary form of government, declared broad civil rights and the implementation of socio-economic reforms. However, Shishekli and his associates, who were behind the cabinet leapfrog of 1950–1951, turned to harsh measures in an attempt to bring the resurgent trade unions and the peasant movement under their control. In November 1951 they dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution. For six months, the country was led by the military in the absence of a government. In April 1952, political parties were banned. In 1953, Şişekli promulgated a new constitution and became president after a referendum.

The civil-military coalition, which came to power in February 1954, nominated Sabri al-Asali to the post of prime minister, whose government restored the force of the 1950 constitution and allowed the activities of political parties. In September 1954, parliamentary elections were held, in which a significant part of the mandates was won by the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, formed as a result of the unification of the Arab Socialist Party of Haurani and the Arab Renaissance Party of Aflaq and Bitar. However, the “leftist” forces were unable to agree on the creation of a government on a coalition basis, which was eventually formed by Faris al-Khouri. In February 1955, Faris al-Khouri was replaced as prime minister by the leader of the National Party, Sabri al-Asali. The government immediately announced sweeping reforms in industry and the agricultural sector. Frightened by this prospect, as well as by demands from the Baath and Communists for further radical changes, conservatives in parliament blocked a proposed law on the rights of agricultural workers and began a campaign in favor of former President Kuatli, who soon returned to the country from Egypt, where he was in exile. In the elections in August 1955, Kuatli was elected president of the country with the support of Saudi Arabia.

In the early 1950s, as a result of US Middle East policy, Syria was drawn into the Cold War. In 1955, the country joined Egypt in its fight against the Baghdad Pact (later the Central Treaty Organization, CENTO) created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the United States and Great Britain. In December, Syria became the second (following Egypt) state in the Arab world to sign an agreement with the USSR on the supply of military equipment. In 1955–1956, Syria reached an agreement with Egypt to unify the military command and create a common Military Council. The Suez crisis of 1956, which led to a joint British-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt, further strengthened bilateral ties.

The country's close ties with Egypt, coupled with US and Iraqi attempts to undermine its leadership, have strengthened the influence of the head of Syrian military intelligence, Colonel Abd al-Hamid al-Sarraj. His agents in 1956 uncovered a carefully prepared conspiracy behind which stood the Baghdad intelligence services. The danger of the situation became apparent in August 1956, when Iraqi weapons were secretly transferred to the Druz Mountains. In December, 47 prominent members of the People's Party with close ties to Iraqi traders were court-martialed on charges of treason. Prime Minister al-Asali removed representatives of the People's Party from the cabinet, replacing them with anti-American independent politicians. The United States tried to destabilize the new government by offering American wheat to traditional Syrian markets - Greece and Italy. This led to increased popular support for the Baath Party, which accused the United States of interfering in Syria's internal affairs. Meanwhile, the revelation of American plans to overthrow Quatli and seize power from a pro-Western military junta led Sarraj and the Chief of General Staff to visit Cairo to discuss possible Egyptian assistance. At the end of 1957, the political games of pro-American, pro-Egyptian and pro-Syrian figures led to the postponement of municipal elections. In January 1958, Chief of the General Staff Afif al-Bizri made a secret trip to Egypt, turning to Abdel Nasser with a proposal to immediately unite Syria and Egypt into a single state. In February, Kuatli flew to Cairo, where the creation of the United Arab Republic (UAR) was announced.

Union with Egypt.

The Syrians enthusiastically approved the creation of the UAR in a referendum on February 21, 1958. The Provisional Constitution of the Union State was adopted, which provided for a single president and government, as well as the existence of separate Executive Councils for two regions of the UAR: Northern (Syrian) and Southern (Egyptian). In 1959, the Egyptian National Union Party was declared the only legal political party of the UAR. Sarraj became Minister of Internal Affairs and head of all Syrian intelligence services.

The desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries provoked a widespread increase in discontent in Syria. In Cairo, it was considered possible that the development programs developed for the Nile Valley could be mechanically extended to Syria. When nationalization and redistribution of property began in Syria in the summer of 1961, Syrian small and medium-sized urban traders advocated secession from the UAR. Even the “leftist” Ba’ath spoke out against “socialist” innovations, motivating their position with the desire to soften criticism of the process of unification of the two states and citing the fact that these measures would lead more likely to increased centralized control over the economy than to the achievement of social justice. Widespread opposition to unification and the weakening of pro-Egyptian forces in Syria after Sarraj's transfer to work in Cairo helped a coalition of civilian politicians and military officers achieve the country's secession from the UAR in September 1961.

On September 28, 1961, the Syrian military command carried out a coup d'etat and announced Syria's secession from the United Arab Republic.

Parliamentary interregnum.

From late 1961 to early 1963, three party coalitions operated on the Syrian political scene. The socialists, led by Haurani and Khaled al-Azem, advocated maintaining government control over heavy industry and greater citizen participation in political life. Large landowners, wealthy merchants and financiers called for the restoration of private enterprise and the political order that existed in the 1950s. Moderates, including the Ba'ath wing led by Aflaq, advocated maintaining the political and economic system of the UAR period. Syrian political parties that functioned before 1958 were destroyed by Egyptian intelligence services, and the old National and People's Parties no longer enjoyed popular support. At the same time, the Nasserists continued to occupy senior positions in the trade unions and the central government apparatus. In such conditions, the leaders of the disengagement supporters were initially unable to nominate a candidate for the post of head of the new Syrian cabinet of ministers. Ultimately, the formation of a government that included former members of the National and People's Parties was entrusted to Maamoun Kouzbari, who had previously served as Secretary General of the National Union of Damascus. This coalition did not receive the support of the main political forces of the country, but due to a split in the camp of the left, the National and People's Parties managed to win a majority in parliament in the elections in December 1961.

The new government of Maarouf al-Dawalibi, with the support of the top army, began a process of denationalization and encouraged the creation of private enterprises. The decisions taken in the UAR, which led to the expropriation of British, French and Belgian property, were canceled, and the UAR law on land reform was revised. Peasants and small village producers from outlying governorates opposed these changes. They were supported by young officers who shared Baathist principles, a group of whom, led by recent supporters of the separation of Syria and Egypt, in March 1962 arrested the bulk of members of parliament and tried to force them to continue reforms. Nasserist officers from the Homs garrisons attempted a counter-coup but failed. In April, the commander of the Syrian army, Major General Abdel Kerim ad-Din, convened a meeting of senior commanders in Homs, at which it was decided to remove left-wing socialists from the armed forces and restore civilian rule. At the same time, parliament was dissolved, Abdel Kerim ad-Din was appointed Minister of Defense. In September, the Military High Command restored parliament and appointed Khaled al-Azem as prime minister. He formed a government consisting of representatives of all parties and factions, with the exception of those who advocated reunification with Egypt. At the same time, Khaled al-Azem firmly spoke out against the further participation of the military in the political life of the country. The current situation, which was aggravated by population protests initiated by the Nasserists and the growing Islamists in January 1963 in Damascus and the geographical region of Hauran (southwest of the capital), provoked a new military coup in March 1963, the so-called. "March 8 revolution".

Ba'athist regime.

The coup in Syria was organized by the Military Committee of the Baath Party, which was not officially considered part of the party organization, but shared the goals of its leadership.

In the first months after coming to power, the leaders of the March coup nationalized banks and insurance companies and launched a new agrarian reform, limiting the size of private landholdings. Prime Minister Salah Bitar said private ownership would remain “in the efficient industrial sector.”

However, in May 1964, radicals from provincial party organizations nationalized a number of large industrial firms in Aleppo and Homs and introduced a system of self-government there. By the summer, they had convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and to pass a new labor law that increased the state's role in protecting workers' rights. In the fall, the General Federation of Peasants was founded, and in mid-December the government decided that all future oil revenues in Syria should remain in the hands of the state.

These measures created the basis for a radical transformation of the economy in 1965. In January, the “Ramadan Socialist Decree” was adopted, which placed all the most significant Syrian enterprises under state control. Over the next six months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. In the course of it, the ties between the trade unions and peasants, who formed the support of the Baath Party, and the artisans and traders of large and small cities, who began to retreat from the nationalist principles proclaimed by the party, were finally broken. Tensions between these two categories of population resulted in riots and demonstrations that engulfed the cities in the spring and summer of 1965. This marked the beginning of a struggle between moderate Baathist figures associated with the Minister of Internal Affairs Amin Hafez, and left-wing Baathist leaders led by General Salah Jadid for determining the future course of the Baathist revolution. Amin Hafez, who headed the government in mid-1964, turned to the all-Arab leadership of the party for support. In turn, Salah Jadid strengthened his position in the regional (Syrian) leadership by appointing associates to strategically important positions in the Syrian army. At the end of February 1966, Jadid's supporters, which included the commander of the air force, General Hafez Assad, managed to finally eliminate Amin Hafez and his supporters from the power structures.

The new government began to create state cooperatives, approved measures to concentrate wholesale trade in the public sector, and in 1968 introduced a system of central planning. The new regime entered into an alliance with the Syrian Communist Party, and prominent communists were included in the government. This course was opposed in provincial cities by representatives of the middle strata, who were forced to obey party directives under the supervision of a growing people's militia. In the spring of 1967, anti-Baathist protests began, provoked by an editorial in the army weekly, which was perceived by the general public as atheistic. In response, the ruling regime mobilized its armed supporters in the ranks of the workers' militia, as well as parts of the Palestinian guerrillas based in Syria since 1964, who sought to re-involve the Arab world in the liberation struggle. The spiraling militarization helped drag Syria into the Six-Day War with Israel in June 1967.

Israeli air strikes on large Syrian enterprises and the oil refinery complex in Homs caused enormous damage to the country's economy, and Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights in southern Syria seriously damaged the reputation of Jadid's cabinet. The government's failure to restore the national economy in the post-war period provoked a new wave of anti-government protests that swept through the country's cities in 1968 and 1969. These protests were led by a militant Islamist organization led by Marwan Hadid of Hama. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite. The radicals who grouped around Jadid set the task of strengthening state influence on the economy and proposed subordinating the military to the civilian wing of the Baath. Pragmatists, united around Defense Minister General Hafez al-Assad, sought to create conditions for the development of private enterprise and preserve the autonomy of the army; by the beginning of 1970, they managed to achieve the adoption of regulations to subsidize private enterprises and ease restrictions on the import of a number of goods. These measures contributed to the economic recovery of the country and created the preconditions for the coup d'etat in November 1970, as a result of which the military wing of the Ba'ath, led by Hafez al-Assad, came to power.

Assad's rule.

The new leadership preferred a development strategy that included government funding and control of large capital-intensive enterprises while supporting trade and investment in the private sector, especially in construction and agriculture.

The Assad government has developed a five-year economic recovery plan. The October War with Israel in 1973, during which Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated offensive into the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, although a costly undertaking, demonstrated that the Syrian military had strengthened significantly compared to 1967. In 1974, Israel withdrew from several areas of the Golan Heights, including the city of Quneitra. Private firms that emerged in Syria in the early 1970s benefited from rising oil prices that brought prosperity to Arab oil-producing states after 1973, as well as from expanding ties with Lebanese banks and light industries. Syrian entrepreneurs, with close ties to Lebanon and the oil-producing Gulf states, benefited from Assad's intervention in the Lebanese civil war after 1976 and from strengthening diplomatic contacts with wealthy Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which provided generous economic aid to Syria in the late 1970s.

However, the use of public funds by senior Syrian officials to support regime supporters, as well as the size of the profits that entrepreneurs received from connections with state-owned companies, provoked accusations of corruption among the ruling elite. These accusations, coupled with growing competition between state-owned enterprises and private firms, gave impetus to the intensification of the Islamist movement in the late 1970s. At the beginning of 1976, members of several independent Islamist movements began a campaign directed against the ruling regime. In 1977–1978, they organized a series of attacks on government targets and assassinations of prominent government and party leaders.

In the spring of 1980, serious clashes occurred between government forces and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs. After this, the central authorities made a number of conciliatory gestures, but already in July they declared membership in the Muslim Brotherhood a criminal offense. A group of influential religious figures brought together leaders of militant Islamist organizations in November to create the Islamic Front to coordinate opposition to Baathist leaders. In response to the challenge, the regime began to strengthen its position, strengthening the public sector of the economy. The government increased wages at state-owned enterprises, whose dependence on Damascus, according to official decrees, was decreasing, and their responsibility to the local administration was increasing. Private companies involved in the manufacturing industry were subject to increased taxes. A series of measures have been implemented, especially in the northern and central governorates, aimed at diverting the flow of raw materials from small private firms to state-owned enterprises. In 1981, the government obliged importing merchants to obtain licenses to import goods from abroad from the Ministry of Commerce and apply for the necessary loans exclusively to state-owned banks. Traders who tried to circumvent these rules were arrested on charges of smuggling and tax evasion.

Faced with attacks on their rights, small traders from Hama, led by members of the Muslim Brotherhood, launched an open rebellion against the authorities in February 1982 with slogans aimed at establishing an Islamic order in Syria. The uprising was brutally suppressed by the army led by the president's brother, Rifat al-Assad. The consequence of the speech in Hama was the creation of the National Union for the Liberation of Syria, which included groups united in the Islamic Front and other underground organizations opposing the regime. The charter they adopted called for an end to corruption, free elections for the Constituent Assembly and liberalization of the constitution. However, the opposition failed to build on its success. The government brought the country's economy under even tighter control to deal with growing shortages of manufacturing investment and foreign exchange, and Assad's opponents turned their attention to international affairs, particularly Syria's support for Islamist Iran during its war with Iraq (1980– 1988).

The economic boom of the previous decade ended in the early 1980s. While Syria's military spending increased greatly, especially after the launch of a massive Israeli offensive in Lebanon in June 1982, world oil prices began to fall, significantly reducing foreign exchange earnings. As a result, revenues from liquid fuel exports fell and the flow of money from Syrians working in wealthy Arab oil-producing states fell.

As control of the country consolidated, the Assad government began a second phase of economic liberalization in the late 1980s. The final Statement of the Ba'ath Convention, held in January 1985, criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the public sector of the economy and put forward a proposal to reorganize the complex exchange rate system in order to reduce illegal currency circulation and losses from illegal black market transactions. In the spring of 1985, the country's new Prime Minister Abdel Raouf Qassem began negotiations with Western states and foreign financial institutions to attract foreign investment in agriculture and the service sector. At the same time, the government continued to assert that such a policy was fully consistent with the official plan for economic development in Syria.

In 1986, the European Community promised financial assistance to Syria in the amount of 146 million ECU, but later froze it. After the Syrian leadership supported the actions of the international coalition against Iraq in 1990–1991, this assistance was unfrozen. The emirates of the Persian Gulf and Saudi Arabia provided the country with funds in the amount of $1.25 billion and loans in the amount of $3–4 billion. These injections allowed the Syrian economy to achieve record growth (by 6% in 1990 and 8% in 1991) .

In the 1990s, the Syrian government continued to pursue a tough domestic policy. In December 1991 and March 1992, it released more than 3 thousand political prisoners, but at the same time new arrests were made, and the number of people imprisoned for political reasons was, according to international human rights organizations, several thousand people.

The country experienced difficulties associated with balance of payments and budget deficits. The government has begun to further stimulate the development of private entrepreneurship.

The authorities tried to achieve improved relations with the West. In 1994, US President Clinton visited the country (the first visit of a US president to Syria since 1974). Attempts by American and other diplomats to achieve the beginning of a settlement in Syrian-Israeli relations were unsuccessful. Syria has declared its readiness for formal negotiations subject to the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the Golan Heights and southern Lebanon. Since 1991, meetings between both countries were held irregularly under the mediation of the United States, but they were stopped in 1994. After Israeli and Syrian military experts agreed in 1995 on a framework for coordinating security aspects related to the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Golan Heights, where the Israelis had built 31 settlements, the negotiation process resumed. But already in 1996 it was interrupted again due to the Arab-Israeli confrontation in Palestine. In December 1999, negotiations resumed again. Relations with Jordan have improved. A free trade zone was established on the Syrian-Jordanian border in 2000.

In 1998, the ruling PNF once again won the elections to the People's Council, and in February 1999, H. Assad was re-elected president, receiving 99.9% of the votes in the referendum. However, the struggle for his inheritance has already intensified within the Ba'ath Party leadership. Former Vice President Rifaat al-Assad (H. Assad's brother) fell out of favor; his private port in Latakia was stormed by troops in October 1999. The president himself now considered his son, Bashir al-Assad, as his successor. In March 2000, Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Zuabi, who had held this position since 1987, was removed from his post (two months later he committed suicide, accused of corruption). In the new government of Mohammed Mustafa Miro, the position of Bashir's supporters has significantly strengthened.

Syria at the beginning of the 21st century.

June 10, 2000 H. Assad died. After the People's Council lowered the age of presidential candidates to 34, Bashir al-Assad was officially nominated by the Baath Party for the presidency. In the referendum on July 10, 2000, he received the support of 97.3% of voters.

B. al-Assad announced his intention to continue trying to reach a settlement of the conflict with Israel, but repeated the demand for the Israelis to withdraw to the border that existed before the 1967 war. In 2002, Syria announced its readiness to resume peace negotiations with Israel from the point at which they were interrupted H. Assad, and without any preconditions. The new president also took steps to improve relations with Iraq. In an effort to expand the base of his influence in Lebanon, B. al-Assad entered into a strategic partnership with the radical Shiite organization Hezbollah.

In 2002, B. al-Assad twice declared an amnesty: the prison sentences for children aged 7–18 years old accused of committing criminal offenses were reduced by a third, and in October those who evaded military service or deserted from the Syrian army received forgiveness. In 2002, 12 prominent political prisoners were released, including communists and several Jordanian citizens.

Some opposition activists returned to the country. In April 2002, one hundred thirty-seven former political prisoners sent a memorandum to the President calling for the removal of all restrictions and repressive measures imposed on those previously arrested for political reasons.

The activities of human rights groups, as well as opposition organizations, intensified. In August 2002, at the initiative of the Muslim Brotherhood, a conference of opposition representatives was held in London, at which the “National Charter for Syria” was adopted. The principles it proclaimed included a commitment to human rights and non-violence.

However, the new Syrian leadership had no intention of following these principles and continued to persecute critics of the regime. Arrests of members of human rights organizations continued; Many of them were prohibited by the authorities from practicing law. Others arrested included some returning Muslim Brotherhood figures from abroad, members of Kurdish political organizations, and dozens of Islamists accused of links to the international terrorist network al-Qaeda. In June - July 2002, ten oppositionists accused of attempting to violently change the constitutional order were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment (up to 10 years), but the most prominent of them, the leader of the UPC-Politburo Riad el-Turk, was pardoned in November 2002 president.

In total, according to Amnesty International, hundreds of political opponents remained in custody - primarily the Muslim Brotherhood, members of the pro-Iraqi wing of the Baath Party, the Islamic Liberation Party, the Arab Communist Organization, Palestinian activists, etc.

In the People's Council elections held in March 2003, PNF candidates won 167 of 250 seats; the rest went to independent candidates.

In 2003, Syrian President B. al-Assad sharply condemned the US-British military attack against Iraq. In response, the United States accused the country of supporting terrorism and harboring figures from the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein. American sanctions were imposed on Syria. A number of European states have expressed concern about American pressure on Syria.

In October 2003, Israel Defense Forces aircraft carried out an air strike on Syrian territory near Damascus, citing the fact that there were camps of activists of radical Palestinian organizations, including Islamic Jihad.

The action was held in response to the terrorist attack in the Israeli city of Haifa, which killed 19 people.

The Syrians denied the existence of Palestinian training camps in their country and insisted that the attack was on a refugee camp. The issue of sanctions imposed on Syria escalated in February 2005 after the February 14 explosion in Beirut of the car of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik al-Hariri. Some politicians have accused the Syrians of involvement in the murder of a Lebanese politician and of seeking to destabilize the situation and, ultimately, civil war in Lebanon, before parliamentary elections. In September 2004, a UN resolution called for the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon.

In March 2005, Assad complied with this resolution and withdrew his 16,000-strong military contingent from Lebanon.

In April 2007, general elections were held in Syria. First, the Syrian parliament was elected, elections to which are held every four years, then a referendum was held to re-elect the president for a new seven-year term. At the last stage of elections, local authorities are formed.
On May 10, 2007, Assad's candidacy as the only contender for the presidency of Syria was approved by the country's parliament.
On May 27, 2007, 96.9 percent of nearly 12 million voters took part in a national referendum. Of these, 97.62 percent supported Assad’s candidacy, while 19,653 people voted against. On July 17, 2007, Assad officially took office as head of state, whose powers extend until the next elections in 2014.

In March 2011, anti-government protests began in the southern Syrian city of Daraa on the border with Jordan. Initially, demonstrators demanded the release of schoolchildren arrested for anti-government slogans they had written on the walls of their houses. Stop rampant corruption - this was another slogan of the demonstrators.

Local law enforcement forces brutally dispersed the demonstration, and this became the reason for new demonstrations and clashes with the police. New demands were added to the previous ones: trials of those responsible for the deaths of demonstrators, the release of political prisoners and the resignation of the governor. The authorities used force again.
Riots and demonstrations began in the cities of Harra, Dahel, Jassem, and Naui. Later, protests took place in a number of other regions of the country, in particular in the cities of Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama and some suburbs of Damascus. By the end of March 2011, mass protests in southern Syria reached their maximum intensity.

Opposition and human rights groups say authorities are brutally suppressing protests and the death toll is in the hundreds. At the same time, state television claims that the unrest is being organized by extremists incited from outside, and that most of the dead are soldiers and security forces.

President Bashar al-Assad has repeatedly spoken about the existence of an external conspiracy. However, he still announced political reforms being prepared in the country. In particular, the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963 was abolished in the country, a commission was created to investigate the events in Daraa, and the governor of the province was dismissed. Authorities released 260 political prisoners from prison, including Islamists and Kurdish nationalists, and granted amnesty to 70 people arrested during the unrest. They promised a reduction in taxes on some food products, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, a reduction in military service by three months, a reduction in parking costs by 30%, and an increase in salaries by 17%.

However, opposition protests in Syria continue, which often result in armed conflicts.

In February 2012, a referendum was held at which a new draft constitution was presented. In the new edition, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (or “BAath” for short) lost its state-forming status, which meant that from now on the BATH will take part in elections on an equal basis with other parties.

On May 7, 2012, multi-party elections to the People's Council (or Majlis, i.e. parliament) were held for the first time. The majority of seats was won by the National Unity bloc (183 seats out of 250), which included the ruling Baath party of Hafez al-Assad and the Progressive National Front party. Independent candidates won 49 seats. The opposition Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Change received 5 seats, and regional associations received 13 seats.

On the night of May 26, 2012, a massacre of civilians occurred in the town of Al-Hula, Homs province. 108 people were killed. According to the UN, 20 people were killed by shelling, while the rest were shot at close range. All the circumstances of the massacre remain unclear.

Syrian authorities said the events in Houla provoked opposition forces to derail the peace process.

The current situation in the country can be described as a civil war.

On June 3, 2014, the country held the next presidential election. According to official data, 88.7 percent of voters (more than 10.3 million people) voted for Bashar al-Assad. In the West and, in particular, in the United States, however, they refused to recognize the results of the vote.

Literature:

Syria: Directory. M., 1992

Syria is one of the countries with the oldest civilization, a link between three continents. The history of Syria goes back more than five thousand years. Thanks to archaeological evidence, we can say that human settlements existed here already several thousand years BC. The first traces of humans on earth, living about a million years ago, were discovered in the territory of present-day Syria, in the region of Latakia and the Orontes River. Later, in the fertile Euphrates Valley, man switched from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture. The result of this was education in the X-VIII millennium BC. Natufian culture, which spread to the banks of the Nile. Living proof of this are the ruins of the city of Ugarit. At that time, there were settlements of the Canaanite tribes, or Amorites, who were engaged in semi-nomadic cattle breeding.

In the VI-III millennia BC. The emergence of the first states, similar in type and location to the Sumerian civilization, begins. The most famous of them is the ancient city of Mari, which was covered with sand and was later found by archaeologists.
At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The first slave states emerged here. Subsequently, they became objects of the aggressive aspirations of large states of antiquity, which quickly arose and sometimes disappeared just as quickly.

Long before the rise of the Roman Empire, the entire coastal territory of Syria was inhabited by “Phoenicians” - West Semitic tribes. They knew how to cultivate grain crops, flax, olives, grapes, they built a complex system of underground pipelines through which water was supplied to remote areas of the country, and large dams were built on the rivers. The high level of development of the Phoenicians is evidenced by archaeological finds along the Orontes River (Al Asa) and Barada. The development of irrigation agriculture led to the fact that in the Hellenic era the country became the richest granary of the Mediterranean.

The favorable geographical location between Asia, Europe and Africa has at all times contributed to the development of Syria's international relations, its trade and the prosperity of its cities. Naturally, such land has always been the target of conquest by warring tribes and neighbors. Egypt, the Hittite kingdom, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and later Macedonia, Rome, Byzantium and European states during the era of the Crusades fought fierce wars for the control of Syria. The conquerors exported slaves, grain, livestock, gold, timber, etc. from the country. And of course, they all left their mark on the population, languages, culture, and faith of ancient Syria. A huge list of tribes and peoples who lived in Syria at different times.

Ancient Syria.

In the XXIV century. BC. In northern Mesopotamia, King Sargon created a strong Akkadian state, whose army more than once carried out military campaigns in Syria. Akkad did not last long and fell under the blows of the Amorites (Amorites) who came from Arabia.

In the 17th century BC. Many small states were formed with a mixed population of northern tribes - Hurrian and local Semitic - Amorites. The largest city-states were Yamhad with its center in Aleppo, Amurru and Qatna in Central Syria and the strongest slave-holding power - the kingdom of Damascus. Several centuries later, it became part of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, the power of Alexander the Great, and the Hellenistic state of the Seleucids.
At the beginning of the 16th century. BC. In the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Hurrians created the state of Mitanni. It also laid claim to Syria and Palestine in the fight against the Hittite state and Egypt. But Mitanni did not last long. Just three decades later, the Egyptians under the leadership of Pharaoh Thutmose I conquered its territory. From that time on, the great battle for Syria began between the Egyptian pharaohs and the Hittites. And only in 1312 BC. After the bloody battle of Kadesh, an official border was established between the two kingdoms, which ran in the area of ​​​​modern Homs.

In the XII-XI centuries. BC. Syria, Phenicia and Mesopotamia were flooded by tribes of northern nomadic Arameans. Later, in the 1st millennium BC. their language (Aramaic) is distributed throughout much of Southwest Asia. In the same era, the first Arab tribes penetrated this territory.

In the 8th century BC. The kingdom of Damascus is conquered by the Assyrians, and later by the Babylonian army of Nebuchadnezzar II, and then by the Persians. Syria simply changed its owner, but the main battles for this entire territory took place in Mesopotamia (350-500 km in the Euphrates Valley in the territory of modern Iraq).

In the VI century. BC. the entire territory of Syria is part of the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, and after its defeat in 333 BC. the Greek-Macedoan army into the empire of Alexander the Great. At this time, the Greek language and culture spread throughout the Great Empire. After the collapse of the Macedonian Empire, Syria became a province of the Greek Seleucid state.

From 64 BC the conquest of Syria continues. The Romans come here after the Palmyra kingdom, which occupied most of the territory of Syria from Egypt to Asia Minor, fell to them. The ruins of Palmyra have survived to this day and never cease to amaze tourists with their splendor.

The Roman Empire.

The commander Gnaeus Pompey annexes a significant part of Syria to the Roman possessions, thus expanding his southern province of Arabia. He makes Bosra the capital of the province. In this era, literate “Syrian” emperors appeared on the Roman throne: Caracala (211-217), Philip I the Arab (244-249) from Shahba, who is depicted on the Syrian 100-lira banknote.

In the 3rd century. AD The kingdom of Palmyra, led by the warlike queen Zinobia, rebels against the Romans, and gradually conquering neighboring lands and cities, extends its power to the entire territory of Syria and part of Egypt. Having not been defeated by a woman, the Romans sent entire galleons to war with Zinobia, and in 272 they captured Palmyra, plundered it and completely destroyed it. The queen is brought in golden shackles to Rome. Zinobia lived in Rome as a famous and revered captive, and died there.

From IV to VII centuries. Syria becomes a province of the Byzantine Empire, but at this time Byzantium is weakened by internal contradictions, aggravation of class struggle against the background of religious persecution, ineffective labor of slaves, etc. And at this time in the 7th century. Arabs freely penetrate into Byzantium. During the Arab conquest, Islam spread rapidly in Syria.

Arab caliphates.

Covering not only Syria, but also a number of countries in Western Asia, North Africa and even Europe, the Arab conquest led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate - the largest world power of the early Middle Ages. In 635, Damascus became the capital of the feudal Umayyad caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria accepts Arabic and converts to Islam. The rapid spread of Islam is explained not only by the previous bloody persecution of Christians, but by economic benefits. For example, from non-Muslims, the Caliph levied the Kharaj tax, which amounted to half the harvest. Then, as a Muslim, he only paid tithes for the same. Also, non-Muslims were initially subject to a heavy capitation tax (from each soul) - jizya. But this benefit did not last long. Once Islam took hold in most territories, the Arabs began to think about acquiring wealth. After Caliph Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, came to power in 750, Muslim converts were no longer exempt from the poll tax.

In the VIII-XI centuries. Baghdad becomes the capital of the Arab Caliphate, because of this, although Syria still plays some role in the Caliphate, it loses some privileges.

After the collapse of the Arab Caliphate into several independent states, Syria remained under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty (969-1171) and the Ayyubid dynasty that replaced it (1171-1260). The founder of the last dynasty was the famous Salah Ad-Din, an irreconcilable rival of the crusaders.

In 1260-1303. During the Mongol raids, the country was under Mamluk rule. The Mamluks are the generals who overthrew the Ayyubids and seized power in Egypt. Thanks to their military training, discipline and clear organization, only the Mamluks managed to hold back the Mongol army. But at the beginning of 1400. Syria was still subjected to a short (less than a year) but devastating raid by Tamerlane's army.

Crusades.

In 1098, a wave of ardent religious fervor among Europeans for the possession of the Holy Sepulcher reached the borders of the state of Bilyad Ash-Sham (territory of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine).

During the First Crusade, the most destructive of all, the crusaders captured Antioch, then all of Syria, and in 1099. Jerusalem. Moving south to Palestine, along the entire coast, the crusaders erected many defensive structures - citadel fortresses, many of which have survived in excellent condition to this day (for example, Krak des Chevaliers).

In the Second Crusade, the crusaders tried to conquer Damascus, but fled under the attack of Nur ad-Din's cavalry.

In October 1187, Salah ad-Din recaptures Jerusalem. But indignant Europe gathers new forces and sends its army to the Third Crusade. This most famous campaign involves the King of England, Richard I “Lionheart,” and the Emperor of Germany, Frederick I “Redbeard” (Barbarossa). But the mood among the crusaders was not as optimistic as a hundred years ago. Many of them went on this campaign only to earn a living for their family in a weak Europe devastated by internecine wars and plague. When, like the Arab people, love and respect for their warrior-liberator Salah Ad-Din grew stronger, and many were ready to fight with honor under his leadership. And indeed, Salah Ad-Din justified such universal trust and reinforced his reputation as an Honest, Fair, Brave, Talented Warrior and leader, a skillful Diplomat. And his army easily conquered castle after castle. On September 1, 1191, an agreement shameful for the Crusaders was signed between Salah Ad-Din and Richard I, according to which the Christians were left with a small strip of coastline from Tire to Jaffa. The influence of the crusaders weakened every year, in Europe they no longer believed in the Great Goal, and the campaigns were not supported financially, the flow of recruits dried up, and the last armies of the crusaders, driven by the Arabs, left Syria in 1303, sailing to Cyprus.

Ottoman Empire.

In 1516, after the Battle of Marj Dabiq, Syria became a province of the Ottoman Empire. For four hundred years from 1516-1918. Turkish rule left a heavy mark on the life of Syria, its culture, led to the decline of its economy, and the impoverishment of the population. Damascus and Aleppo were ruled by Turkish pashas. This position was simply bought in Constantinople, which led to frequent changes of rulers. Pasha held this position until someone more expensive bought it. In such a short period of time, he made the most of his power for the purpose of quick and merciless profit. In Damascus alone, 133 governors changed over 180 years. The Turkish Sultan could not control all of his territories, so the power of the pasha was practically unlimited. It was at this time that the crisis of the feudal economy intensified, and the people, crushed by unbearable taxes and growing foreign capital, rose up in armed struggle. A political movement against Turkish oppression arose among the intelligentsia and the young national bourgeoisie of Syria. Arab patriots advocated the creation of an independent Arab state.

During the First World War, the Arab population supported the Entente army on the Central Asian front. In September 1918, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in southern Syria and the Turks were expelled from Syria.

Syrian troops entered Damascus under the command of Emir Faisal ibn Al-Hussein, who was proclaimed King of Syria in 1920. The Entente only verbally supported Syria in its state self-determination. In fact, the European powers agreed to divide the Turkish heritage. But because of the October Revolution in Russia, they did not dare to openly divide among themselves all the Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa. But they came up with the idea of ​​extending the mandates of the League of Nations to them. Also in 1920, the king of Syria was forced to leave his country. Tunisia, Algeria, Syria and Lebanon were placed under French mandate.

During French rule, due to the open market, as a result of which, unable to withstand competition with cheap mass imports, tens of thousands of local producers and artisans went bankrupt, the country, which had been completely self-sufficient in food for thousands of years, was forced to increase imports every year due to decline in agricultural production. In this regard, a wave of armed uprisings swept across Syria. After the Syrian national uprising in 1925-1927. France changed its apparently colonial methods of government.

In 1924, the Syrian Communist Party was created. In 1930, the country's first Constitution was promulgated, which declared Syria a republic but remained under French mandate. The French allowed several local representatives of the bourgeoisie to govern. As a result of the mass uprising in 1936, an agreement was signed between the French government and the Syrian bourgeoisie, which provided for the abolition of the mandate and the declaration of Syrian independence. But in 1919, the French parliament abolished this treaty, and with the outbreak of World War II, the Syrian constitution, and thus Syria became a French mandate. Since September 2, 1939, it has been a military zone. After the surrender of France to Nazi Germany, the territory of Syria came under the control of the German-Italian Armistice Commission. During this period, an anti-fascist movement emerged in Syria and Lebanon, which offered strong resistance. It was this that made it easier for the troops of England and France to expel fascist agents from Syria and Lebanon. For this, Syria was promised independence. In 1944, France announced the end of its mandate and Syria was declared independent.

Syrian independence

On April 17, 1946, the last foreign troops were withdrawn from the country. This date is celebrated in Syria as the Evacuation Day holiday.

In July 1944, at the request of the Syrian government, diplomatic relations were established with the USSR. Syria became a member of the UN, and in March 1945, Syria was one of the initiators of the creation of the League of Arab States. In the early stages of independence, Syria moved to a bloc of the propertied classes, and the influence of foreign capital was felt. The instability of political power, the growing activity of the democratic strata of the population, under pressure from strong imperialist powers, the Communist Party was banned in Syria in 1946. During the Shishekli regime (1951-1954), all constitutional freedoms were eliminated and new laws were issued on the dissolution of political parties. Popular discontent grew more and more; the programs put forward reflected the demands of the population, which were also supported in the army, especially after the Palestinian tragedy in 1948-1949. On February 25, 1954, the National Opposition Front and army circles carried out a military coup. As a result of the coup, the constitution was restored, a number of freedoms were restored and the first parliamentary elections were held. At the end of 1956, the National Front was formed within the communist party - the Arab Socialist Party (BA'ath). After which the state bought out the tobacco monopoly, railways, power plants and utilities, and revised agreements with oil companies in its favor.

In February 1958, an agreement was signed between Syria and Egypt, which provided for their unification into the United Arab Republic (UAR), which lasted from February 1958 to September 1961. In the fall of 1961, bourgeois-landowner circles inspired a coup d'etat and Syria terminated the agreement with Egypt and began to bear the name of the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). There was a state of emergency in the country - the denationalization of banks and industrial enterprises, the halt of agrarian reform, and peasants began to be expelled from the acquired lands.
In 1962, workers and students demonstrated in the country against the denationalization policy.
On March 8, 1963, power in Syria began to be exercised by the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), founded in 1947. In February 1966, its left wing came to power, thanks to which a number of progressive social reforms were carried out aimed at undermining the positions of the bourgeois -landowner circles and foreign capital, the position of the working masses was significantly improved.
In 1967, as a result of a military conflict between Syria and Israel, called the Six-Day War, the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. Seven years later, in 1973, Syria launched the Yom Kippur War to liberate the occupied territories, but was unsuccessful. According to the UN decision, the territory of the Golan Heights is a buffer between the two countries.

In May 1973, the provisional constitution of Syria was replaced by the current permanent one.

During the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988. Syria supported Iran.
The central place in the state mechanism of Syria is occupied by the president of the republic, who is actually vested with decisive powers. His candidacy is nominated by the People's Council (parliament) at the proposal of the regional leadership of the ruling party. From 1971 to June 10, 2000, Hafez al-Assad was president. Currently, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic is the son of Hafez al-Assad, Bashar al-Assad.

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical sketch: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Roshchin (Historical sketch: Syria from the Arab conquest to 1970), T. K. Koraev (Historical sketch: Syria in 1970–2014), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed forces), V. S Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Guseinova (Theater), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>

SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).

General information

S. is a state in the South-West. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is sire. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).

Administrative-territorial division (2011)

S. is a member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945, membership suspended in 2011), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), IMF (1947), IBRD (1947).

Political system

S. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.

The highest body of legislators. authorities - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis al-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.

The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.

Leading political parties: Arab Party. socialist Revival (PASV), Progressive National. front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes, etc.

Nature

Relief

Shores preim. low, slightly indented by bays. The northern part of the territory is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, two chains of mountains stretch from north to south, separated by tectonics. El-Gab depression with the river valley. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain is made up of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah; altitude up to 1562 m), the eastern range is made up of the Al-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya mountains (altitude up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon there is the Anti-Lebanon ridge (up to 2629 m high, Mount Tal'at Musa) and its south. continuation - the Esh-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) alt. up to 2814 m. Anti-Lebanon has many karst landforms formed in limestone. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). There is a volcanic site in the southwest. Ed-Duruz massif (altitude up to 1803 m). In the southeast there is part of the Syrian Desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. To the east parts along the river valley The Euphrates is an alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the high Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau. 200–450 m with separation remnant hills (Abd al-Aziz mountains up to 920 m high, etc.). Along the Mediterranean coast there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of S. is located in the north. on the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian Platform, in the area of ​​distribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a thickness of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of flints and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. The coastal lowlands contain Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, and aeolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravels, limestones). In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic west. part of the northern territory experienced uplift; A regional seismically active fault arose (the so-called Levantine fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and construction. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.

Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural flammable gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, east and northeast, belongs to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestone, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural builds. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).

Climate

On the territory of the North the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; precipitation is more than 800 mm per year. In the Ansariya range (Nusairiyah) it is cooler, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, and snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus wed. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; precipitation approx. 200 mm per year. To the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and its instability from year to year increases. East part of the country has a dry continental climate; Wed temperatures in January are 4–7 °C (characterized by almost annual frosts), in August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing Shemal wind and spring Khamsin wind, blowing from the Arabian Desert, are accompanied by sand and dust storms.

Inland waters

Most of the territory has no external drainage; lowland areas are characterized by dry erosional valleys (wadis). The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean and Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length 675 km in the north) with its tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of the North's surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabqa [near the town of Madinat et Thaura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El-Assad reservoir. Along the north-east borders of the north flows the river. Tiger. In the north-west there is a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmouk (tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - river. El-Kebir. The river flow is formed entirely within the northern borders. Barada, irrigating the Damascus Ghouta oasis. The maximum river flow occurs in winter; in summer, the rivers experience low water. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used through wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources amount to 16.8 km 3, water availability is low - 882 m 3 / person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km 3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in industry, 87% in villages. x-ve. In North, the issues of sharing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.

Soils, flora and fauna

Sandy loamy-loamy deserts with thin gray soils are widespread on the plateau. In the south, rocky-gravelly hamadas predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In the depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the northern Along the northern borders, gray-brown and brown soils are common. The Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. In the coastal lowlands there are brown soils; with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.

The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and subshrubs (saltwort, wormwood), and ephemera. On the Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau, low-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge and other ephemeroids, including wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates Valley, areas of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and on the coast. pine trees, Cilician fir; small tracts of relict Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. To the west On the slopes of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah), broad-leaved oak forests with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs are common. The lower parts of the slopes are usually covered by secondary maquis and garigue formations. To the east The slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the mid-mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain zone.

The fauna is diverse. There are 125 species of mammals, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; ungulates include antelope, wild ass onager, and many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, and wild cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks); among the birds of prey there are falcons, eagles, and hawks. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are endangered.

Condition and protection of the environment

In the north, where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has been greatly changed. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Basic eco-friendly problems - overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and on the coast. To the east In arid areas, desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial waste is urgent. wastewater, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 objects (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake Al Jabbul is a wetland of global significance.

Population

The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yazidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​Western. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyos (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.

The population increased 6.5 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military actions, according to UN estimates , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight of over 4 million people from the country). Natural growth of us. 2.1% (2013), which means. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than mortality (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality rate is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 61%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 35%, people over 65 years old – 4%. Wed. life expectancy is 75 years (men – 72, women – 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed. density of us. OK. 97 people/km 2 (2014). Most densely for selena coast, north. part of the country and the Rif Dimashq governorate (average density 100–250 people/km2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama, etc. over 1000 people/km2); least – center. and east districts (less than 25 people/km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). Largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry – 32.7%, p. farms – 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).

Religion

A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, assessment). The vast majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are common); The influential Shiite minority includes the Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and the Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of drusen is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10–11% of residents are Christians, mostly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldo-Catholics, Syrian-Catholics, Maronites, Greek-Catholics, Armenian-Catholics and Roman-Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. The Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, is home to a small Yazidi community. Few the Jewish community survived in Damascus. Serious damage to religions. minorities in the country are being attacked by weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.

Historical sketch

Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest

The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Acheulian [bas. monuments - between the river El-Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm et Tlel (in the El Koum oasis north of Palmyra; layers about 20 m, up to the Neolithic), etc.]. This is followed by the Yabrud industry, then Hummal and Laminar (ca. 200–150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Moustier era is represented by the Levallois industry (including with pointed points such as Umm et Tlel, etc.); early Upper Paleolithic - by Aurignac and the Ahmar culture (ca. 35-17 thousand years ago), middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which the Natufian culture .

The territory of S. is included in the oldest zone of the formation of a producing economy - Fertile Crescent. Among the supporting monuments are doceramic. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell Abr, Tell Aswad, Ras Shamra, El Kdeir, etc. A number of centers for the appearance of ceramic dishes, which spread from the middle, have been recorded. 7th millennium BC e. Around the end In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture was recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra spread and the Halaf culture spread, replaced by the culture of the North. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the Sumerian civilization, mountain settlements arise. such as Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar in the northeast of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.

From the beginning 3rd thousand connections with South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community “Nineveh 5” is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-administration. centers (see Art. Tell Khazna). Around midday In the 3rd millennium, settlements with a perimeter wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type) appeared, correlated with the cities and the beginning of Sir proper. civilization; During the excavations of Tell Beidar (ancient city of Nabad), the oldest cuneiform archive in the region (25th century) was discovered (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian). From the beginning 3rd millennium in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites settled from the south, another group of Semites moved north, founding the state of Ebla, which competed with the one that arose on Wed. Euphrates Mari. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors, a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.

Around the end In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 – beginning 18th centuries in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) was formed, which soon disintegrated. In the west, the states of Yamhad and Qatna competed with him and with each other. To 2nd half. 1770s – 1760s (under Zimri-Lima) refers to the last flourishing of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century The Hurrians played a prominent role in the region along with the Semites. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Ancient Egypt with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the world's oldest alphabet (c. 15th century; see also) is associated with one of the Egyptian (later Hittite) dependent cities of Ugarit. Ugaritic letter). According to Hittite-Egypt. to the world (1270) b. parts of the northern territory remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon North. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–08), and the state of the Hittites, like the Asian. possessions of Egypt, in the end. 13 – beginning 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, who destroyed a number of cities in the sir. Mediterranean coast.

K con. 2nd – beginning 1st thousand these zap. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North), which coexisted with the states, where the so-called. Late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Akhlamei), who penetrated into the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit Adini (capital in Til Barsib), Bit Bakhiani in the upper reaches of Khabur (capital of Guzan - the site of Tell Halaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi in the region of Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. One of them, with the capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, first written mention around the middle 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of its kings Reason I and Tabrimmon, it becomes the strongest in the region.

From the end 11th century expansion into the Assyrian region begins. Counteracting this is the so-called. Northern Sir. the alliance was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III at 857–856. T.n. South Syrian An alliance (supported by the rulers of Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) managed to stop the Assyrians at the Battle of Karkar (853). However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries. Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734, the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; resistance of a number of sir. states led by the king of Damascus Reason II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, and Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig Latpalasar III. Reason II was executed, b. Parts of the Aramaic population were resettled inland. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.

After the death of Assyria in 612–609, S. became the arena of struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. fell to Antigonus, and after the Battle of Ipsus (301) it became part of the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and collapse began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then part of Parthian Kingdom, Armenia, controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. S. controlled lands Nabatean kingdom. In 83–69 BC. e. the region was captured by Armenians. king Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. Rome was organized in S. and a number of adjacent lands. Prov. Syria.

From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic. position (4 legions were stationed here) and economic. potential (highly developed agriculture and crafts, including textiles and glass making). Sire. merchants and artisans were famous in many cities of Rome. empires. Some rome. emperors and members of their families were from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and influence of Rome, especially in polyethnics. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (mainly based on Aramaic).

From the 1st century S. is one of the centers of the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. was represented by more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antiochian Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of patriarchy. From the 4th century the region becomes an important center of monasticism, and the pillarism originated here (see. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of internal Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under the emperor. Justin I (518–527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread throughout the Middle and Middle East. East (see Syrian churches).

In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Coelesyria and Syrophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Province was separated from Kelesyria. (capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - provinces S. I (capital in Antioch) and S. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small province. Feodoria. The state with its center in Palmyra, which retained its independence for some time, was annexed to Rome ca. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 brought under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. Prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of struggle against the Sassanid state, is known no later than the 4th century.

During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but according to a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.

Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest

All R. 630s As a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, the power of Byzantium in the territory of S. will end. weakened, dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634, Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fakhla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra al-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzantine. army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counteroffensive, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmouk (636) was put to flight by smaller Muslim forces; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638, Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until the middle. 640s Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became political. and the cultural center of a growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in various areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, the majority of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. language (from the beginning of the 8th century). However, the departments were preserved. Hellenistic elements heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and architecture was influenced by both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).

All R. 8th century The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline and was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and a gradual decline of cities began. In the conditions of political and economical instability, Arabization and Islamization continued. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, the north. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to attacks by the Byzantines. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to the military. with help either to Baghdad or to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the seizure of Syria by Egypt. by the Tulunid emirs in 878, in 935 by the emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate. All R. 10th century all in. The Hamdanid dynasty, whose court was in Aleppo, came to power in S., which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).

Syria before the Ottoman conquest

Development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries. was suspended by the conquest of its interior. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and the north. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. Northern regions that remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimidov. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 of the Principality of Antioch on its territory. East S. broke up into departments. Arab possessions and Seljuk feudal lords, who waged wars both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo, Nur ad-Din, managed to unite most of S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part sire. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he drove the crusaders out of the country. parts of the Antioch prince. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control only over the interior. areas of the north, in the north they were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the crusaders, in the east - various. Turkic state formations.

In the 2nd half. 13th century S. came under Egyptian rule. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baybars succeeded in the 1260s. occupy strategically important fortified Ismaili points in the mountains of the North. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last crusader fortresses on Sir. Mediterranean coast. At this time, an effective administration was created on the territory of S. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts and rural areas began. x-va. Syria reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of Nasir ad-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through the North and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and the North. Africa began the decline of the Mamluk power, which opened the way for the Mongols under Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the successes of the Mong. troops, to the con. 15th century sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.

Syria until the end of the 19th century

As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of S. was divided into 4 vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were governed by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the Sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special forces were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first had a beneficial effect on the development c. x-va. However, increasing tax oppression and the growing arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. This means in the regional economy. Goal began to play a role. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut turned into ch. shopping centers in S. Europe. penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchant houses in a number of cities. colonies, which assumed almost complete trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (mainly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of Europeans. powers to establish their spheres of influence in North (the French supported the Maronites, the British - the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the Sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, which sought to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze moved to an isolated mountainous area southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was named. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. part south S. came under the rule of Akka Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 French. The troops, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Britons. The fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.

During Tur.-Egypt. War of 1831–33 S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, and the growth of the stock of cultivable lands. However, the introduction of conscription, state. Corvee labor and rising taxes caused repeated uprisings. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans that supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in the north. powers: in 1840 the power of the Ottoman Sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the scope of the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for european goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The emerging trend in this regard towards the transition of agricultural ownership of allotments by townspeople intensified after the law of 1858, which allowed the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From ser. 19th century commodity-money relations actively developed in S. There was a specialization of the department. agricultural regions (Northern North - cotton, Hauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for the provision of loans to the Ottoman Empire by the French. companies received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of Hijaz), modern. port facilities, organization of regular steamship services, laying telegraph lines.

In connection with the increasing intervention of the deputy. powers in economic and political life S. to the end 19th century Anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arab. The elites were also dissatisfied with Ottoman rule. Arab ideas were developed in the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia. nationalism. In the 1870s A society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yazici, whose goal was to fight Ottoman rule. In the 1890s. In Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated S.'s independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century

Patriotic sentiments in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution 1908. Dozens of socio-political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines created legal Arab. patriotic organizations, mass rallies and political disputes. However, it soon became obvious that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend their interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. Formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among young and European-educated sires. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif ad-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. formed in 1909 in Istanbul. club. Syrians also predominated in such prominent nationalities. political organizations such as Young Arabia (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, they, together with the Lebanese Reform League, convened the Arab. congress However, the inability of the Arab. involve nationalists in their politics. The struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.

After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a German tour base. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Cemal Pasha, who headed in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared war in S. position. Despite the massive repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by increased taxes on the military. needs and brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of massive requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sires. There were food riots in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the leadership. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-British. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation of a single independent Arab after the war. state On Sept. 1918 An anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, coinciding with the advance of the British towards Damascus. and French troops and Arab. army led by Faisal (entered Oct. 1918). B. Ch. S. fell under the authority of the commander of the allied forces, Brit. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, there were French. strength. British-appointed military officer. governor in the east part of S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to govern all the former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (previously, in March 1920, according to a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent Syria .). However, in April 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. representatives at the San Remo conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and the administration of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain. In July 1920, the French troops, having overcome the weapons. resistance sir. patriots occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.

Syria during the French Mandate

During the French period Syria's mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region centered in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Ar-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a department was allocated. a district governed directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the populated region. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, etc. The terms of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for a free European trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow, sire. textile industry (in 1913–26 the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies had a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the Bank of Syria and Lebanon had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipelines belonged to the French.

All R. 1920s in S. a number of political parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sire. and Lebanon. communists; actually Sire. communist party (UPC) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). Anti-French flared up all over the country. speeches. In 1922–23, the Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new rebellion of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of the generals sent against them. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the “state of Aleppo” and the “state of Damascus” were united into the “state of Syria.” In April 1928 elections to the Constituent were held. meeting. In May 1930, the Organic Statute (constitution) was adopted in North Korea, which proclaimed it a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). Under French The regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia remained separate from the north. In the parliamentary elections in November. 1936 victory was won by the National. block. On Dec. 1936 The new parliament elected H. Atasi as president of the country. National liberation movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the National Party. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of independence of S. In December. 1936 Franco-Sir was signed. a treaty that declared the sovereignty of France and did not allow French interference in its internal affairs. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to station and move troops, as well as create military forces. bases on the territory of North Korea. To eliminate the mandate regime and join the League of Nations, a three-year transition period was envisaged. Sire. Parliament ratified the treaty on December 27, 1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, which came to power in France in January. 1939 abandoned the agreement. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. The administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the High Commissioner suspended the constitution (repealed in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to govern the internal affairs). affairs of the country, the so-called Board of Directors).

Since the beginning of the 2nd World War in September. 1939 war was declared in S. situation, large contingents of the French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the surrender of France in June 1940, the country came under the rule of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. Due to the disruption of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the supply of food and raw materials, economic The situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. In Feb. 1941 National The bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the “Board of Directors” and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the fall of 1941. On July 8, 1941, the British joined S. troops and units " Free French" Between Couatli, the Free French administration and the British. Representatives reached an agreement, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded on Dec. 1943, French the mandate was cancelled, sir. the government from 1/1/1944 transferred the main adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen its foreign policy. sovereignty of the country. In Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March she took part in the creation Arab League. In October it was accepted as a member of the UN. However, the British continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. provided it with economic power. and strategic privileges. Refusal sir. government to fulfill these demands caused clashes between the French in May 1945. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. came under artillery fire). In the fall of 1945, the government of S. demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to make a decision on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.

On Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arabs. countries launched wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the opponents, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Israel.

Syria after independence

S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the national economy. economy, industrial development (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (mainly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of state sector in the economy was initiated in 1951–1955 by the nationalization (for ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by Iraq Petroleum Company and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" about the deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that transferred labor relations to the legal plane. In 1947, a new electoral law was issued, introducing direct elections and secret voting. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable; most of them were sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, determined the internal politics. instability of the state. In the beginning. 1947 The peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of politicians. parties, which allowed the National. the party won the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli was re-elected president. On Nov. 1948 His government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the chief, Gen. regiment headquarters H. al-Zaim, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, the activities of the political. parties are completely prohibited. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in arms. forces during the repeated war. coup led by regiment. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. On Dec. 1949 The regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad citizens. rights and carrying out socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (from July 1953 - president) established a military regime. dictatorship. Everything is political. parties, societies. organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was abolished. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in February 1954, supported by people. performances in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, began to restore democracy. institutions. The 1950 constitution was returned, political activities were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by desire Parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industrial and agricultural sectors, win the presidential elections in August. 1955 Cuatli won again.

In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in “ cold war" All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against what was created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the USA and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56, S. reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and creation of a common Military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian relationship. communications. In Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). On Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the UAR region, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the confiscation from landowners. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961 foreign countries were nationalized. and private commercial banks and largest industrial companies. Everything is political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a generally unstable economy. The situation in Egypt (crop failure due to drought, supply interruptions, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in population discontent. Decree of Egypt. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction of state control into S. planning and strengthening the state. sector prepared the way for a new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by S.’s military command) and S.’s withdrawal from the UAR.

The activities of the new government of M. ad-Dawalibi were aimed at gradually curtailing the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused a difference. circles sir. public debate about the ways of further development of the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the entry into politics. the proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in strengthening the positions of PASV.

As a result of the war. After the coup of March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and the adoption of a new labor law, according to which the role of the state in protecting workers' rights increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called Ramadan Socialist The decree that placed everything under state control means the most. sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. During its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASV began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). On Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the leftists from all parties. and state posts But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a broad socio-economic program. transformations. Nationalization of large industries followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State The economic sector took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967 the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).

In 1966 – beginning. 1967 Tensions increased on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions as a result of which part of the sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra area, were occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (a significant part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government’s reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. PASV wing led by H. Assad.

Syria 1970–2011

With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. supporting trade and investment in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sire. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab world. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry of Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic relations. contacts and generous economics. assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arabia and Kuwait at the end. 1970s The Arab-Israeli War of 1973 showed a noticeable strengthening of Israel's defense capabilities compared to 1967. However, the use of budget funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with the growing competition between the state. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of various. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on government facilities and the murders of prominent functionaries of S. and PASV.

After clashes between the army and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made to criminalize membership in the organization Muslim Brothers. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. figures formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are increasing wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions for private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in February. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president’s brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Constituent. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran-Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations united in the National. Union for the Liberation of Syria.

In the beginning. 1980s Due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings decreased significantly, while military prices increased sharply. costs due to Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 PASV congress criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency trafficking and losses from black market transactions. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister. A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. states and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and service sector. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [this was realized only after Damascus supported the international operation in 1990–91. coalition against Iraq (see Kuwait crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion dollar subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf allowed for the rapid growth of the sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the country's balance of payments deficit. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private enterprise and continued the policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone opened in 2000.

In Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the votes in the referendum). But given his advanced age, The issue became the question of a successor: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over his father’s post and received the support of 97.3% of the votes.

The new head of S. declared his intention to reach a settlement with Israel subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders in 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which his predecessor broke them off. While taking steps towards rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time sought to expand his base. influence in Lebanon went strategic. partnership with Shiite radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring accomplices of Saddam Hussein, which was followed by sanctions from the United States. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, carried out an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, and according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion of a car in Beirut. Lebanon Prime Minister R. al-Hariri: accusations were made against Damascus, which allegedly sought to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after September. 2004 The UN called for the withdrawal of Sir. armies from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. implemented the corresponding resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, in which the only candidate, B. Assad, won.

Civil war in Syria

In March 2011, unrest began in Daraa (on the border with Jordan) under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for the violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Daraa later spread to other areas (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of the North had reached its maximum. incandescence The opposition accused the government of suppressing a protest with hundreds of peaceful victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism and massacres of military personnel. security forces and agencies. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, the reduction of conscription military service, and an increase in wages. A commission to investigate the events in Daraa was established, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prison. However, this did not lead to calm; on the contrary, opposition protests increasingly took the form of weapons. confrontation.

In Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which PASV was deprived of its leading and directing status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, at the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the National bloc received a majority. unity”, which included PASV and Progressive National. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition “Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes” and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians were killed in Al-Hul under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed opposition provocateurs. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in factual conditions. citizen war: according to official According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the voting results. Part of the territory of S. came under the control of various. paramilitary organizations (terrorist Islamic State in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of Syria in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).

At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorism organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began carrying out air strikes on the positions of the “Islamic State” on the territory of the North. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. 15.3.2015 Turkey gave permission to the United States to use the Incirlik Air Force Base to host Americans. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 according to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the “Islamic State” the military began. Russian operation in St.

Diplomatic Relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Russian-Sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and Slovakia. Relations between Russia and Slovakia are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008, B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, V.V. Putin’s first visit to Damascus in the history of bilateral relations took place. Political Recent interaction has focused on issues of internal Syrian settlement.

Farm

S. is a country of medium economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. GDP volume is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); based on GDP per capita $5,100. Human development index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy - p. farming, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railways. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, intensify the activities of the private sector, and attract foreigners. investments, etc. So. Damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the war that began in 2011. conflict between governments. troops and rebel groups. The state has grown. debt, economic growth rates have decreased. growth, inflation accelerated, etc.; industrial area was significantly destroyed. infrastructure (the oil industry was hit the hardest). By 2015 it will be destroyed. international promotions terrorist organizations (“Islamic State” and others) disorganized farms. communications, brought the country's economy to the brink of collapse.

In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry – 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing – 17.6% (2013, estimate).

Industry

The most developed (before the escalation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industrial sectors: oil and natural gas production and processing, electric power, chemical, construction materials, food and textile.

Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); basic production areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan fields; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward and other fields in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state-owned General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).

Natural gas production 16.6 billion m3 (2012, estimate); basic deposits – Al-Dubayat and Al-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in the city of Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity of about 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), the city of Tadmor (2.2 million m 3, Homs governorate), etc.

Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest is Aleppo, capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest is Tabqa on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city . Er-Raqqa).

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimate; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly based on imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (approx. 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; factories in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).

Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the electronic industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are automobile assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).

Phosphates are mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimate; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among the chemical enterprises industry - factories for the production of minerals. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas refining), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paint and varnish products, detergents, polymer materials, etc. S. is one of the leading Arab. pharmaceutical production countries drugs. In the beginning. 2010s St. acted in S. 50 pharmaceutical companies (approx. 17 thousand employees; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national medication needs.

The construction materials industry is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Production: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).

The textile industry has traditionally been of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo and Damascus). The industry is represented by cotton ginning. factories, silk spinning factories (main center - Latakia), production of wool and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothing, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. Food-flavoring industry (including sugar, oil, tobacco, production of canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production of various. artist metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .

Agriculture

One of the chapters industries national economy. In the structure of agricultural of land out of 13.9 million hectares, pastures account for 8.2 million hectares, arable land - 4.7 million hectares, perennial plantings - 1.0 million hectares (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s food needs and provided the light and food processing industries with raw materials.

Crop farming (about 65% of the value of agricultural products) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils in high moisture conditions), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; Rain-fed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Grown (harvest, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. technical crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beets (1027.9 thousand tons).

Livestock farming (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive; in semi-desert areas it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 million pcs. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes River valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch approx. 12 thousand tons per year).

Services sector

The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state. (the largest is the Commercial Bank of S., in Damascus) and small private ones (emerged in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also international branches. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - over 56%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including 66.1 thousand km with hard surface, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa/border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Basic lines: Damascus – Homs – Hama – Aleppo – Maidan Iqbes/border with Turkey; Aleppo – Latakia – Tarsus – Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Ar-Raqqa - Qamishli / border with Turkey. Intl. airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. mor. ports: Latakia (freight turnover of about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). The country has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals at sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and refineries, as well as those serving for transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from fields in the east and center of the north reach Aleppo (further to Turkey) and Homs (further to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.

International trade

The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11,592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2,675 million dollars, imports of 8,917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3,876 million dollars, imports - 10,780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and petroleum products (over 1/3 cost), agricultural products (cotton, diff. vegetables and fruits, wheat, live cattle, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2012 estimate): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported are machinery and equipment, food, metals and products made from them, miscellaneous. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% of cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.

Armed forces

Armed forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (ground forces), air force and air defense, and navy. Military officer formations – up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand are in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the North – 275 thousand people. Military annual budget is 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities taking place on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.

The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country, who determines the basic. directions of military-political course S. and exercises leadership of the Armed Forces through the Defense Ministry and the General Staff. Subordinate to him are the Chief of the General Staff (also the commander of the Ground Forces), commanders of the branches of the Armed Forces and some of the center. MO management.

Direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the armed forces. Most formations and units are below their normal strength.

NE (110 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. Organizationally, they are consolidated into 3 army corps headquarters, 12 divisions, 13 departments. brigades, 11 departments special regiments appointments. Reserve: tank division headquarters, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). The SV is armed with St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactful. missiles, 6 anti-ship missile launchers, 4950 tanks (including 1200 in repair and storage), 590 armored personnel carriers, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 PU ATGM, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.

The Air Force and Air Defense (approx. 56 thousand people) have combat and auxiliary personnel. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Basic administrative body and operational control of Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the Air Defense Forces - the department. command; The aviation forces are subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters mainly obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of the North includes more than 100 airfields, and for the basing of modern. Only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Bley, Damascus, Dumayr, En-Nasiriya, Seikal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been constructed at all military aviation base airfields. shelters for airplanes. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 PU SAM, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.

The Navy (5 thousand people) consists of the fleet, naval aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic ships. ships, training ship. Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of anti-ship missile systems P-5 and P-15, 2 art. division (36 130 mm and 12 100 mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Based in Latakia, Tartus.

Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Regular armed forces are recruited by males aged 19–40 years, service life is 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.2 million people. One of the priority areas of the military. construction of military-political S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of modern aircraft. military samples equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.

Healthcare

In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total expenditure on health care is 3.4% of GDP (budget financing - 46.1%, private sector - 53.9%) (2012). Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatric care. assistance (2007). State healthcare is free. In war conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and medical services. care and health care management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis and polio (2012). Basic causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).

Sport

National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in London; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) dept. team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in the freestyle wrestling competition in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in various. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 sire. athletes participate in the Asian Games (except 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan-Arab Games (1976, 1992), sir. the athletes won the team competition. The most popular sports in the country: football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, track and field. Since 1972, the men's national team periodically takes part in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Management of education institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Basic regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - obligatory. education (1981), about the activities of the university (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary vocational education. education (main education based on incomplete secondary school; course up to 3 years), higher education. There is a Center for Vocational and Technical Sciences. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary vocational training. educational institutions offer 2-year technical training. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. In 2013, 5.3% of children were enrolled in preschool education, 74.2% in primary education, and 44.1% in secondary education. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Largest universities, ch. scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. language (all - Damascus): “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, since 1948, organ of PASV; circulation about 65 thousand copies), “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; about 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; about 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab" ("Struggle of the People", since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. language daily gas comes out. “Syria Times” (Damascus; since 1981; about 12 thousand copies). Weeklies are published in Arabic. language (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillahin” (“Struggle of the Peasants”, since 1965, organ of the General Federation of Peasants of Syria; about 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist . workers' struggle", since 1966, organ of the General Federation of Trade Unions of Syria; about 30 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (carried out by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), broadcasting television programs since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; Damascus). Govt. Sire. Arab. information agency (“Syrian Arab News Agency”; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).

Literature

Literature sir. people are developing into Arabic. language On the territory of the North in the 1st century. n. e. there was a sire. the language in which the literature was created. works (see Syrian literature) and which in the 14th century. The Arab was completely ousted. tongue. Middle-century liter S. – part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in North, which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, the period of enlightenment began; the desire to renew literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story “Joys for Lovers and Delights for the Nights,” 1874; collected essay “Pearls,” 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The founders, sire. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah became the theater's directors (historical dramas "Cleopatra", 1888; "The Greed of Women", 1889). At the origins of the new sire. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books “The Forest of Law”, 1866, “Travel to Paris”, 1867; the story “Pearls from Shells”, 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of sir. prose became works created in the traditions of maqama, but dedicated to pressing problems of sir. societies: N. al-Kasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Saqal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Century”, 1909). Patriotic The theme distinguishes tradition. poetic in form. creativity of M. al-Bism, H. ad-Din al-Zarqali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. Romanticism dominated in S.'s literature, most vividly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Risha, W. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attar, as well as prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose novel. genre in S. literature, associated with M. al-Arnaut (novels “The Lord of the Quraysh,” 1929; “Virgin Fatima,” 1942; etc.). Novels in modern times The themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate Plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.

Since the 1930s realism began to take hold, vividly represented by the short stories of A. Khulka (collection “Spring and Autumn”, 1931), M. an-Najjar (collection “In the Palaces of Damascus”, 1937), F. al-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Witch’s Daughter”, 1948), etc. The genre of social comedy took shape in dramaturgy (M. al-Sibai), plays appeared in historical. and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s–60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Kayali, H. al-Kayali, S. al-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Khauraniya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (novel “Love Letters”, 1956), H. Barakat (novel “Green Peaks”, 1956), A. al-Ujayli (novel “Bashima in Tears”, 1959), etc. “Women’s” prose received the form, represented by the names of S. al-Haffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel “The Diaries of Hala,” 1950), K. al-Khuri (novel “Days Spent with Him,” 1959). In psychology prose of Z. Tamer, marked stylistically. grace, the influence of Europe is noticeable. modernist literature. Existential issues dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People,” 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats,” 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.

In the 1960s “new poetry”, marked by metrical-rhythmic, developed. experiments: N. Kabbani, A. al-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; The work of Adonis gained wide popularity. Romanticization of the past, appeal to mythological. the material is characterized by a rich philosophy. reflections on the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam Beg, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai and H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door,” 1964; “The Carpenter’s Daughter,” 1968). The creators of the “political theater” were S. Wannus and M. al-Hallaj (the play “Dervishes are looking for the truth”, 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (story “Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said, etc.; they were presented in a modernist vein by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Faces of the Late Night,” 1974). The novel developed predominantly. in realistic. spirit, gravitating towards panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilyani, A. Nahvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dikhni, Y. Rifaiya, H. al-Zahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 – beginning 21st centuries dedicated to the preem. socio-political and patriotic subject; Among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Zahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (novels “Masquerade of the Dead,” 2003; N. Suleiman (novel “Forbidden Souls,” 2012).

Architecture and fine arts

In historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was influenced by many. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, ancient Egypt, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely connected with the complex of cultures of Arabia. In the 3rd century. BC e. – 3rd century n. e. S. became the area of ​​​​contact between the ancient and Parthian traditions, in the 4th–7th centuries. – Byzantine. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of ancient art. S.'s culture determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, and depicted. and decorative and applied arts.

The most ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, c. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, c. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - “idols” made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the east. parts of the Northern territory, rectangular 3–4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also stone and terracotta figurines, vessels made of alabaster and marble (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished pottery is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the eastern. regions - ceramics from the Samarra culture (Baghuz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east S. in complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes were found (Tell Halaf); in the Palanli cave (north S.) - animal drawings close to the Halaf ceramics style. Eneolithic settlements of the north and north-east parts of the Northern territory had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, and administration. buildings, multi-room rectangular houses with a center plan. hall and internal courtyard (Habuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the mud brick walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) at Tell Brak; the facades were decorated with clay cones and copper plates and gold. From the 2nd half. 4th millennium BC e. artists were created. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramics. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. seals with reliefs (Habuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).

Bronze Age works of art demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) indicate the development of a local version of Mesopotamian depiction. claim, departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Works by Ebla illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of the East. and zap. artist traditions. The sculpture is reminiscent of Sumerian in style and iconography, but with more careful attention to detail. The archaic roughness of the enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plastic arts of the Hittites; jewelry with elegance and style. The variety is reminiscent of the products of Ugarit, where most of them come from. monuments of art from S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egyptian. samples, mainly demonstrate Ugaritic style with organic. a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.

The invasions of the Sea Peoples and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. Assyrian adm. arise. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the style of art of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city ​​in the north border of S. (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9–8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country at the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. one of the syncretistic variants was formed. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in iconography and the style of archaic, crude images.

All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural farms. centers 4th – 1st third of 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of late antique and early Byzantine culture have been preserved: Sergilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4–6 centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time are distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (mon. Kal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. type of temple. In general, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large 3-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone vaults (at Kalb Luzech, 4th–5th centuries; church at Brad, 395–402). In the 6th century. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed temples (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptisteries, martyriums, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles-palaces ( Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor 6th century). Marble cladding, mosaic floors, subject paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used to decorate the interiors of palaces and temples. carvings, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. Floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra al-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark a turn to the conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols inherent early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artists. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims. During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).

Syro-Byzantine art. the school played a crucial role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. generally retained their Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a Muslim center was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace adm. complex - Dar al-Imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st half. 8th century construction of remote residences and estates – “desert castles” – began; at the basis of their layout one can guess the Roman scheme. fort and byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornament - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, c. 715). Surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian styles. Sasanian traditions (floor frescoes and stuk sculpture from the “desert castle” of Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).

With the Abbasids moving the center of the Caliphate to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of Syria ( Er-Rak ka, founded in 772 on the model of "Madinat al-Salam", see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries. S. cities acquired the Middle Ages. view. Large construction took place in Damascus and Aleppo. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential areas with religious buildings, markets, and societies. bathhouse The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of S.'s architecture has become cultic and charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2–3-story building with a center. courtyard with ivans on the main axes and a pool in the center, which united a madrasah, maristan (medical hospital) or ribat or taqiya (abode of Sufis) with a prayer house and tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the north-west S. is occupied by crusader castles, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque, and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both – 12th–13th centuries, Arabic in place. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, northern trade and craft centers (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.

It will depict blossoming. claim of the Middle Ages. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniatures in manuscripts collection. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al-Hariri Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (early 13th century, Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and humorous scenes. intonation; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or Byzantine-influenced. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of subject and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), on the decor of bronze products (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.), decorated chasing, engraving, carving, silver inlay (Damascus, Aleppo). Middle-century S. craftsmen became famous for making weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with plant, epigraphic and figurative motifs) - became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern within a pattern”) and abstract.

The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume with center hemispherical dome and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are faced with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrassas, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, iwans, arcade porticoes, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more and more elegant (Azema palaces in Damascus and Hama, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic cladding. panel with growing patterns in sonorous colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, and khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-story buildings now have windows with shutters and balconies covered with wood. carved mashrabiya grilles. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone this means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) achieved high skill.

In con. 19 – 1st half. 20th centuries changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depicts. art (the emergence of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecochar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, general plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; Architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated at Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses began, museum buildings, and resort buildings on the coast.

Depict. claim S. 1st half. 20th century took shape in the process of European exploration. artist culture and search for national style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. Association of Arts, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters are the 2nd floor. 20 – beginning 21st centuries - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portraitist L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The decorative and applied art of S. preserves tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric making, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.

Music

Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting rich Roman women playing music; it presents muses. instruments: oud, kamancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, time signatures and the presence of bourdon - “Ison”) and, on the other hand, maqama (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatics). In the divine service, Western Sir. Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday song book (hymnary) “Beth Gezo” (“Repository of Treasures”; edited by Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing approx. 700 notated chants (in modern decoding in 5-line notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and Syrian Conservatory (1961); An opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music “Dar al-Assad” in 2004.

Theater

Until sep. 19th century development of prof. theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heir of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed people. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets Karagyoz, folk scenes. comedy fasl mudhik. All performances are based on the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit These became artists. tradition of the people spectacular forms are included in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.

Along with Egypt, S. was previously another Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here where mystery plays and morality plays were performed. Playwright A.H. al-Qabbani adapted world drama to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically connecting new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of folk art. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social urgency of the plays and their wide audience success led to the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among other sires. cultural figures whose mass exodus to Egypt in the 1870s and 80s. associated with tur pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European countries. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Y. al-Hayat and others. Thanks to their efforts, a theater troupe was organized in Alexandria, which staged plays “Harun ar -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemaque" (1882), etc. Between the two world wars, people occupied a special place. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. skits and music. So... contribution to the development of sir. The theater was contributed by the actor and playwright N. al-Reyhani, whose play “Kish-Kish Bey” combined elements of French. vaudeville and national music comedies; Ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of the people. character Karagöz. Based on its popularity in the 1920s. performances “The Barber of Baghdad” and “Jasmina” - fairy tales from “A Thousand and One Nights”. Circle of topics sire. dramas of the 1930s included Arabic stories. and Islamic history, adv. epic and mountains folklore Appeal to the historical events and characters at this stage were associated with the desire to arouse the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the national. self-awareness. The winning of independence in 1945 gave new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the National Society was created in Damascus. dramatic theater in which young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lachman worked. Social drama conquered the stage; Among the authors – V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Maqdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, which explored the relationship between totalitarian power and the silent people, was distinguished by the most acute socially accusatory character. The criticism of the current regime on the theater stage began with Vannus’s play “Party on the Occasion of June 5th” (1968). In his search for rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of Mamluk Jaber” (1970) directed by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced into the performance the image of a storyteller who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore

At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. one of the most pressing problems of stage production. lawsuits S. - disputes about the place and role of people. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern times life of the country. Leading theater figures (including Professor of Damascus University, author of many books and articles about theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, about the creation of an annual festival of traveling storytellers. There are also theaters in the capital: the Workers' Union, al-Qabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Damascus, resumed in Damascus, attracting the attention of young performers ( The topic of the round tables is “Theater and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, the S. theater continues to develop. In 2010, dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus “Theater Laboratory”, where, based on the artist. research about modern the theater analyzes issues of modern communication. sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Since 2013, seminars have been held (“Working on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).

Movie

From 1908 (when the first film screenings took place in the country) until mid. 1910s were demonstrated in the main chronicle and staged French. films after the outbreak of World War I - German. In 1916, the Canakkale Cinema cinema hall was opened in Damascus. The first sire came out in 1928. gaming f. “The Innocent Defendant” by A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930–60s: “Under the Sky of Damascus” by I. Anzur (1934), “Call of Duty” by Badri (1936), “Light and Darkness” by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), “ Traveler" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, the General Organization of Sirs was formed under the Ministry of Culture. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the training of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has financed the production of feature films). The struggle of Syrians for their rights was told in the film “The Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav dir. B. Vucinich), about the fate of the Palestinian people - “The Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the extermination of civilians of a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafir Kasem" by B. Alaviya (1975, Mkf Ave. in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dekhni, “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s The director worked fruitfully. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of the common man to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photographs”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the pharisaism of an unprincipled careerist (“Mr. Progressist”, 1975). The film “An Incident at Half a Meter” by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the national. youth who have withdrawn from confronting negative socio-political phenomena. Autobiographical f. “Dreams of the City” by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, strengthening the principles of democracy. Satiric. the comedy “Borders” by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of narration. fairy tales and sharp journalism in the interpretation of the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the films of A. L. Abdul Hamid - “Nights of the Jackal” (1989) and “Oral Messages” (1991). A notable event was the historical painting about Kawakibi “Dust of Foreigners” by Zikra (1998). The film “Black Flour” by G. caused a wide resonance. Shmait (2001) about the life of the national. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by director. V. Rakhib in f. “Dreams” (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parents’ home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between men and women were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film “Out of Access” (2007). The film “One More Time” by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of drama. events in the country. In 1979–2011, an international was held in Damascus. film festival

Chapter 1. Ancient history of Syria

The history of Ancient Syria is so oversaturated with events that it would take at least five weighty volumes to present it more or less thoroughly. Therefore, I will have to start it with a dry and boring list of grandiose and interesting events.

It is important to note that Syria as a country within its modern borders was formed only in the 20s. XX century. Before that, it was part of more than two dozen states, and contemporaries included in Syria many cities and territories that are now outside it. A typical example: for the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Crusaders, Antioch was a classic Syrian city, and not anyone else's city.

The first traces of human presence on the territory of what is now Syria date back to the Early Paleolithic era. In the Neolithic era and subsequent millennia, the country was a kind of bridge between Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Arabia and Egypt. Neighboring peoples and tribes moved there several times.

Very little is known about the ancient, pre-Semitic population of Syria. The first migration of Semitic tribes (Amorites) occurred at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. At that time, the population was already engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and political power was in the hands of tribal leaders. Egyptian cultural influence penetrated into Syria through the coast of modern Lebanon.

“Based on excavations in the area of ​​Tell Mardiha, 40 km south of Aleppo, it has been established that around 2500 BC. e. there was the capital of the rich and powerful state of Ebla.

During excavations, a palace library was discovered, consisting of 17 thousand clay tablets, among them the earliest known bilingual dictionary in the world. The elected head and senate of Ebla, consisting of nobles, ruled northern Syria, Lebanon and part of the territory of northern Mesopotamia. His main opponent was the kingdom of Mari in the Euphrates valley. Ebla conducted an active trade in wood, textiles and metal products with the small city-states of the Euphrates Valley and northern Persia, as well as with Cyprus and Egypt. Treaties of friendship were concluded between Ebla, on the one hand, and the Assyrian city of Ashur in northern Mesopotamia and the city of Hamazi in northern Persia, on the other. In the 23rd century BC. e. Ebla was conquered by Akkad, its capital was razed to the ground.

After 2300 BC e. Canaanite tribes invaded Syria in several waves. Numerous small states arose in the country, and Phoenician cities established themselves on the coast (Ugarit, etc.). In subsequent centuries, its territory became the object of conquest by neighboring states. Around 1760 BC e. Syria was conquered by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who destroyed the state of Mari. In the XVIII–XVII centuries. BC e. the country was under the rule of the Hyksos, then the Hittites took possession of the northern regions, and in 1520 BC. e. The dominance of the kingdom of Mitanni was established. From 1400 BC e. Semitic tribes of the Arameans began to invade and resettle in the interior of Syria. In the south from the 16th century BC. e. there was a city of Damascus, which became a large trading center. It was originally under the rule of the Egyptian pharaohs.

A fierce struggle for Syria unfolded between the Egyptian New Kingdom and the Hittite power. After 1380 BC e. power over Syria belonged to the Hittites. Pharaoh Ramses II tried to recapture it, but was unsuccessful in the decisive Battle of Kadesh (in the vicinity of modern Homs) in 1285 BC. e. But after the collapse of the Hittite power (around 1200 BC), Syria again broke up into a number of small states led by local dynasties.

At the end of the 11th century BC. e. Damascus and other areas of Southern Syria were conquered by the king of the Israelite-Judean state, David. However, already in the second half of the 10th century BC. e. Damascus regained its independence and became an independent Aramaic kingdom. In the 9th–10th centuries BC. e. Syria was conquered by the Assyrians in 605 BC. e. - Babylonians, in 539 BC. e. - Persians."

November 12, 333 BC e. near the city of Issus a decisive battle took place between the troops of Alexander the Great and the Persian king Darius. The Persians were completely defeated and fled.

The rapidly advancing Macedonian cavalry captured Damascus without much difficulty. There, a convoy with Darius's treasures, which he always carried with him, was captured.

Instead of pursuing Darius, who had gone deep into Persia, Alexander took possession of the entire Mediterranean coast up to Gaza, and then moved to Egypt.

June 13, 323 BC e. Alexander the Great died in Babylon. His generals began to divide Alexander's vast empire. In 301 BC. e., after the Battle of Ipsus, they divided the empire into several independent parts. So, for example, Cassander got the throne of Macedonia, Lysimachus got Thrace and most of Asia Minor, Ptolemy got Egypt, Seleucus got vast lands from Syria to the Indus.

The new states were organized according to a special principle, called the Hellenistic monarchy, based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek polis political traditions. The so-called Hellenistic culture appeared, representing a synthesis of Greek and Eastern elements.

The elite of Hellenistic society consisted mainly of representatives of the Greco-Macedonian aristocracy. They brought Greek customs to the East and actively planted them around them. The local nobility, wanting to be closer to the ruler and to emphasize their aristocratic status, sought to imitate this elite, while the common people imitated the local nobility. As a result, Hellenization was the fruit of imitation of newcomers by the indigenous inhabitants of the country. This process affected, as a rule, cities, and the rural population, which continued to live in the old way, slowly, after several generations, changed their customs.

The religion of the Hellenistic states is a variety of cults of Greek and Eastern gods, often artificially intertwined with each other.

I note that the terms “Hellenism” and “Hellenistic states” themselves were introduced by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen, the author of the work “History of Hellenism,” published in 1840. The term took root, and therefore the states - heirs of Alexander’s empire began to be called Hellenistic.

Initially, the Seleucid state occupied a vast territory and included regions with ancient civilizations - Babylonia, Assyria, Phenicia, Pergamon, and at the same time the lands of tribes that were at the stage of tribal relations. Such a conglomerate of peoples and tribes gradually began to collapse. Syria, as the most economically developed territory and geostrategically important, played an important role in the state. It is not for nothing that in the title of the Seleucid kings the “king of Syria” was listed first.

The capital of the state also changed its place. Originally it was Babylon. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. Seleucus I founded the city of Seleucia on the Tigris in Mesopotamia and moved his residence there. Around 300 BC e. in Syria, 20 km from the coast, a new capital was founded - Antioch on the Orontes River. I repeat once again: Antioch in all centuries was considered a Syrian city. But in the 20s. In the 20th century it became part of the Turkish Republic and is located there to this day under the name Antakya.

In Hellenistic times, Antioch was divided into 4 quarters, each of which was surrounded by a separate wall, and together they were surrounded by an even higher and fortified wall. Located at the crossroads of caravan routes, Antioch controlled trade between East and West. During its heyday, more than 500 thousand people lived in the city.

The Seleucid state, like other Hellenistic states, was headed by a king. The king's power was absolute. And his very personality was perceived as a being of an unearthly order, almost a god. In a document dated 180 BC. e., Zeus, Apollo and... Seleucus Nikator are named as the main deities.

By the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. Syria made up most of the territory of the Seleucid Empire. After the death of the last Seleucid king Antiochus XIII, the Roman commander Gnaeus Pompey in the fall of 64 BC. e. captured Syria and made it a Roman province.

The administrative center of the Roman province of Syria was the city of Antioch. Initially, three Roman legions were stationed in the province to defend the borders of the empire.

In the 1st century AD e. The province of Syria occupied an area of ​​20 thousand square meters. km and had a population of up to 10 million people.

The Roman emperors Mark Antony and Tiberius built Antioch with streets with luxurious marble houses, theaters and stadiums.

It is curious that Antioch occasionally became the capital of the Roman Empire. Thus, from July 362 to March 363, the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate ruled in Antioch. In 371–378 in Antioch was the court of Emperor Valens (364–378), the last Roman emperor - a supporter of the Arians.

According to legend, the first Christian community in Syria was founded around 37 by the Apostle Paul and Barnabas in Antioch.

The bishop of this Church was “the Apostolic Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer” (died in the 2nd century AD). Prester Lucian (died 312) founded the famous Antiochian Theological School in Antioch, which contributed to the systematization of Christian dogmatic teaching and left a rich literary heritage.

From the Antioch Church came holy ascetics and defenders of Orthodoxy: St. John Chrysostom, who was born in Antioch and was a presbyter there before being called to the See of Constantinople; St. John of Damascus (died about 780), theologian who brought into the system the Christian teaching of the faith, church writer, defender of icon veneration; Venerable Hilarion the Great (died about 371), founder of monasticism in Palestine and the first mentor of the Antiochian monks, and many others.

At the First Ecumenical Council, held in Nicaea in 325, the ancient tradition was confirmed, according to which the Bishop of Antioch was proclaimed the presiding bishop of his district. At that time, Syria, Phenicia, Palestine, Arabia, Cilicia, Cyprus and Mesopotamia were under the jurisdiction of Antioch.

After the Third Ecumenical Council, held in Ephesus in 431, almost all the eastern dioceses broke away from it and adopted Nestorianism.

At the IV Ecumenical Council, held in Chalcedon in 451, Antioch received the status of a patriarchate, with the Patriarch of Antioch receiving precedence in honor after the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople. By decision of the same council, 58 of its dioceses were transferred to the Jerusalem Orthodox Church.

The condemnation of Monophysitism at the IV Ecumenical Council led to the division of the Antiochian Orthodox Church into two parts: those who remained faithful to Orthodoxy and those who leaned towards Monophysitism. Those who preserved Orthodoxy were called Melkites (from the word “melk” - emperor, that is, supporters of the Byzantine emperor), those who accepted Monophysitism - Jacobites. The Orthodox predominated in the Hellenized coastal cities, the Monophysites in the smaller towns and rural areas of interior Syria.

The contradictions that existed between the Greeks and the Semitic population of the Antiochian Patriarchate left their mark on the development of the Monophysite unrest. Control over the patriarchal see passed alternately from the Melkites to the Jacobites, and from 550 the Antiochian Church officially split into two parts: the Orthodox and Jacobite churches (the Jacobites still call themselves Orthodox).

In the period from 702 to 742, the Antiochian patriarchal throne was vacant; the monks, who honored the hermit Maron as their patron, took advantage of this and formed their own Maronite patriarchate of Antioch.

Antioch and a number of other cities in Syria were seriously damaged during the earthquakes that occurred there in 526 and 528. The first, according to contemporaries, apparently greatly exaggerated, led to the death of 250 thousand people. During natural disasters, Antioch was completely destroyed; Daphne, Laodicea, Seleucia, and Pieria were also damaged. Beirut was also destroyed as a result of earthquakes in the 50s. VI century.

Continuous wars with Persia also caused enormous damage to Antioch. Thus, in 528, border clashes resumed in Mesopotamia, and in 530, the Byzantine commander Belisarius repelled the Persian attack on Dara. The following year, the Persians, with the support of their Arab allies, bypassed the Byzantine fortifications of Mesopotamia from the south and invaded the weakly defended areas of Syria on the right bank of the Euphrates. In the fall of 532, peace was concluded between both states, which, however, was short-lived, since Persia was very concerned about the military expansion of Byzantium under Justinian.

In the spring of 540, when the best troops of the empire were concentrated in the west, the Persian Shah Khosrow I, overthrowing weak Byzantine barriers, invaded Syria. Without trying to gain a foothold in the captured territories, the Persians sought to inflict maximum damage on the Byzantine lands. Hierapolis, Veroia, Apamea, Emesa were captured and imposed a heavy indemnity. The Antiochians offered serious resistance to the Persians. Nevertheless, the city was taken, methodically plundered and destroyed, and many residents were taken captive. The catastrophe of 540 significantly undermined the prestige of Byzantine power in the Middle East. Justinian's government made significant efforts to restore Antioch, but the city did not achieve even a fraction of its former greatness.

Here, willy-nilly, we will have to return again to the history of various movements in Christianity in Syria and the Middle East, starting from the 4th century.

Monophysitism (eutychianism, comes from the Greek word ????? - “only one, unique” + ????? - “nature, nature”) is a heretical Christological doctrine in Christianity, postulating the presence of only one single Divine nature (nature ) in Jesus Christ and rejecting His true humanity. Attributed to the authorship of the Constantinople archimandrite Eutyches (c. 378–454).

At the Council of Ephesus in 449 (2nd Ecumenical Council), Eutyches stated his confession, and since no docetic heresy was found in it, the abbot of Constantinople was acquitted.

The Church was in turmoil and “theological chaos” reigned.

At the Council of Chalcedon (Chalcedon is a suburb of Constantinople), convened by Emperor Marcian in 451, Eutyches was condemned.

“To calm the empire, several emperors in a row issued contradictory documents, either canceling the results of the Council of Chalcedon, or restoring them. The most significant among these documents was the enoticon of Zeno (482) - the emperor’s religious message, designed to reconcile the warring parties through the return of the faith of the Church to the times of the three Ecumenical Councils. That is, it was proposed to reject both the Second Ephesian and Chalcedon Councils, which equally lay claim to the status of the Fourth Ecumenical Council. Accordingly, the main heretics were declared: on the one hand, Nestorius, on the other hand, Eutyches. This was a compromise, and the Miaphysites, for the sake of the general church rejection of the Council of Chalcedon, signed the enoticon, thereby sacrificing Eutyches, recognizing him as a docet heretic, for which he was accused by the Dyophysites. Despite what led to the so-called. “Acacian schism” was a demarche of the Roman Church; on the basis of the enoticon, the unity of the Eastern patriarchates was achieved. At the very end of the 5th century, for the sake of unity with the Church of Byzantium, the churches of Armenia, Georgia and Caucasian Albania outside the empire also joined the enoticon. Thus, the name of the Constantinople abbot Eutychius was included in the lists of anathematized heresiarchs in these churches as well. In 519, in order to eliminate the schism between Constantinople and Rome, the new emperor Justin I rejected Zeno's enoticon and proclaimed the Council of Chalcedon holy and Ecumenical.

When Armenia came to its senses a little after the Persian defeat, it had to somehow navigate the theological chaos. The Armenians acted simply: they chose the faith that Byzantium adhered to, and Byzantium in those years adhered to Zeno’s enoticon, that is, in fact, Monphysitism. In 40 years, Byzantium will abandon the enoticon, and in Armenia this philosophy will take root for centuries. Those Armenians who find themselves under the control of Byzantium will remain Orthodox - that is, “Chalcedonites”.

In 491, a council of churches of Transcaucasia (Vagharshapar Council) met, which rejected the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon as too similar to Nestorianism.

In 505, the First Dvina Council of Transcaucasia met. The Council once again condemned Nestorianism and adopted the document “Epistle on Faith,” which has not survived to this day. In this document, the churches of Armenia, Georgia and Albania condemned Nestorianism and extreme Monophysitism, recognizing moderate Monophysitism as the basis of their faith.”

As a result, the Armenian Church is now more or less Monophysite, whose adherents still exist in Syria, Copts in Egypt and a certain number of Jacobites in Syria.

At the end of the 7th century, due to the Arab conquest, the Maronites lost contact with Constantinople and therefore in 687 they elected their own patriarch, John Maron. A number of important works for the Maronite Church, as well as the rite of the Maronite liturgy, are attributed to him. The election of their own patriarch caused a conflict between the Maronites and Byzantium and its supporting Melkites and Jacobites. In 694, Byzantine troops destroyed the monastery of St. Maron, killing many Maronite monks in the process.

At the beginning of the 8th century, due to ongoing persecution, the Maronite monks, along with a group of their followers, moved to a remote region of Mount Lebanon, where they existed for several centuries in relative isolation. It was during this period that they realized themselves as a special Church and began to call their bishop the Patriarch of Antioch and the entire East. Further migration of the Maronites led to their appearance in Cyprus (12th century), Malta and Rhodes (14th century).

In the 12th century, when the Principality of Antioch was founded by the Crusaders, the Maronites came into contact with the Latin Church. In 1182, the Maronites formally confirmed their unity with Rome, but most Maronites believe that they never broke off communication with the Roman Church. There is an opinion that before contacts with the crusaders, the Maronites were Monothelites, followers of teachings based on the writings of the Monophysite Patriarch of Alexandria Eutyches, but this is refuted by the Maronites themselves. In any case, there is no doubt that since 1182 the Maronites have professed an orthodox Christology.

Patriarch Jeremiah I Al-Amshitti (1199–1230) became the first Maronite patriarch to visit Rome, where he participated in the 4th Lateran Council in 1215. This visit marked the beginning of close ties with Rome and a trend toward the Latinization of the Church.

In the 16th century, the Maronite homeland was conquered by the Turks, and a long period of Ottoman rule began. At the end of the 16th century, the Maronite patriarchs convened a series of synods, at which they introduced the decrees of the Council of Trent into church life and partially Latinized the liturgy. In 1584, the Maronite College was founded in Rome, where many prominent members of the Maronite Church were educated and which contributed to a greater understanding of the Maronite heritage in the West. In 1606, the Gregorian calendar was introduced into the Maronite Church.

In 1736, the main council of this Church was convened on Mount Lebanon, which carried out important reforms. The Pope's legate was the famous orientalist Joseph Assemani. At the council, a set of canons of the Maronite Church was adopted, according to which the Church was first divided into dioceses, and rules of church life were established, the main ones of which have been preserved to this day. From the beginning of the 19th century, Western states, especially France, began to support the Maronites who were part of the Ottoman Empire. The massacre of the Maronites, which was carried out in 1860 by the Druze in alliance with the Turkish authorities, caused an armed invasion of the French.

Since 1790, the residence of the Maronite patriarch has been located in Bkirki, 25 miles from Beirut.

The church includes eight archdioceses - Antelias, Beirut, Tripoli and Tire (all in Lebanon), the Archdiocese of Cyprus, Aleppo, Damascus (both in Syria), Haifa (Israel); 17 dioceses and two patriarchal exarchates. The Church has 1,033 parishes, 1,359 priests and 41 bishops. The Maronite Church is the largest in Lebanon, comprising 37% of Christians and 17% of the Lebanese population. By 2015, there were up to 50 thousand Maronites in Syria.

A few words should be said about the culture of Syria in the 4th–6th centuries, when it was part of Byzantium. Thus, in Syria and Palestine, Greek was the language of communication of the educated strata of society, as well as science and literature. Latin was used for a long time in the administrative sphere. The service was conducted in Greek and Syriac. Syriac was the language of everyday communication for the majority of the population.

“In Mesopotamia there was an extensive literature in Syriac. Even before Byzantine times, Syriac became widespread in Western Asia as a trade and diplomatic language. In Hauran and Transjordan, Arabic-language culture developed, primarily Bedouin poetry, and the development of Arabic writing took place.

This region, especially in the 4th–5th centuries, was characterized by the coexistence of Christianity and ancient pagan culture, especially strong in large Hellenized cities. Theatrical performances were widely popular even among Christians, as evidenced by the denunciatory writings of church authors. In Antioch, in the 4th–6th centuries, local Olympic Games were held, which gradually, however, fell into decline in the general context of the weakening of the curial class, less and less able to bear the burden of expenses for municipal needs. Neoplatonist philosophers, sophists and rhetoricians lived in Syrian cities, the most famous of them was Libanius (Libanius) (314–393) - Antiochian orator, teacher and statesman, admirer of the pagan past, teacher of Emperor Julian and St. John Chrysostom. The last ancient Latin historian, Ammianus Marcellinus, was a native of Antioch.”

However, Christianity began to dominate Syrian culture.