Leaders of the first three expeditions around the world. First trip around the world

The first circumnavigation of the world under the leadership of Ferdinand Magellan began on September 20, 1519 and ended on September 6, 1522. The idea of ​​the expedition was in many ways a repetition of Columbus's idea: to reach Asia by heading west. The colonization of America had not yet brought significant profits, unlike the Portuguese colonies in India, and the Spaniards wanted to sail to the Spice Islands themselves and benefit. By that time it had become clear that America was not Asia, but it was assumed that Asia lay relatively close to the New World.

In March 1518, Ferdinand Magellan and Rui Faleiro, a Portuguese astronomer, appeared in Seville at the Council of the Indies and declared that the Moluccas - the most important source of Portuguese wealth - should belong to Spain, since they are located in the western, Spanish hemisphere (according to the treaty of 1494), but it is necessary to get to these “Spice Islands” by a western route, so as not to arouse the suspicions of the Portuguese, through the South Sea, opened and annexed by Balboa to the Spanish possessions. And Magellan convincingly argued that between the Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea there should be a strait south of Brazil.

After a long bargaining with the royal advisers, who negotiated for themselves a substantial share of the expected income and concessions from the Portuguese, an agreement was concluded: Charles 1 undertook to equip five ships and supply the expedition with supplies for two years. Before sailing, Faleiro abandoned the enterprise, and Magellan became the sole leader of the expedition.

Magellan himself personally supervised the loading and packaging of food, goods and equipment. The provisions taken on board were crackers, wine, olive oil, vinegar, salted fish, dried pork, beans and beans, flour, cheese, honey, almonds, anchovies, raisins, prunes, sugar, quince jam, capers, mustard, beef and rice In case of clashes there were about 70 cannons, 50 arquebuses, 60 crossbows, 100 sets of armor and other weapons. For trade they took cloth, metal products, women's jewelry, mirrors, bells and mercury (it was used as a medicine).

Magellan raised the admiral's flag on the Trinidad. The Spaniards were appointed captains of the remaining ships: Juan Cartagena - “San Antonio”; Gaspar Quezada - "Concepcion"; Luis Mendoza - "Victoria" and Juan Serrano - "Santiago". The staff of this flotilla numbered 293 people; there were another 26 freelance crew members on board, among them the young Italian Antonio Pigafetga, the historian of the expedition. An international team set off on its first voyage around the world: in addition to the Portuguese and Spaniards, it included representatives of more than 10 nationalities from different countries of Western Europe.

On September 20, 1519, a flotilla led by Magellan left the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda (the mouth of the Guadalquivir River).

Every educated person can easily remember the name of the one who made the first trip around the world and crossed the Pacific Ocean. This was done by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan about 500 years ago.

But it should be noted that this formulation is not completely correct. Magellan thought through and planned the route of the voyage, organized it and led it, but he was destined to die many months before it was completed. So Juan Sebastian del Cano (Elcano), a Spanish navigator with whom Magellan had, to put it mildly, not friendly relations, continued and completed the first trip around the world. It was del Cano who eventually became captain of the Victoria (the only ship to return to her home harbour) and gained fame and fortune. However, Magellan made great discoveries during his dramatic voyage, which will be discussed below, and therefore he is considered the first circumnavigator.

The first trip around the world: background

In the 16th century, Portuguese and Spanish sailors and merchants vied with each other for control of the spice-rich East Indies. The latter made it possible to preserve food, and it was difficult to do without them. There was already a proven route to the Moluccas, where the largest markets with the cheapest goods were located, but this route was not close and unsafe. Due to limited knowledge about the world, America, discovered not so long ago, seemed to sailors as an obstacle on the way to rich Asia. No one knew whether there was a strait between South America and the hypothetical Unknown South Land, but the Europeans wanted there to be one. They did not yet know that America and East Asia were separated by a huge ocean, and they thought that opening the strait would provide quick access to Asian markets. Therefore, the first navigator to circumnavigate the world would certainly have been awarded royal honors.

Career of Ferdinand Magellan

By the age of 39, the impoverished Portuguese nobleman Magellan (Magalhães) had visited Asia and Africa several times, was wounded in battles with the natives and collected a lot of information about his travels to the shores of America.

With his idea of ​​getting to the Moluccas by the western route and returning the usual way (that is, making the first trip around the world), he turned to the Portuguese King Manuel. He was not at all interested in Magellan’s proposal, whom he also disliked for his lack of loyalty. But he allowed Fernand to change his citizenship, which he immediately took advantage of. The navigator settled in Spain (that is, in a country hostile to the Portuguese!), acquired a family and associates. In 1518, he obtained an audience with the young king Charles I. The king and his advisers became interested in finding a shortcut for spices and “gave the go-ahead” to organize the expedition.

Along the coast. Riot

Magellan's first voyage around the world, which was never completed for most of the team members, began in 1519. Five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, carrying 265 people from different European countries. Despite the storms, the flotilla relatively safely reached the coast of Brazil and began to “descend” along it to the south. Fernand hoped to find a strait into the South Sea, which should have been located, according to his information, in the region of 40 degrees south latitude. But in the indicated place it was not the strait, but the mouth of the La Plata River. Magellan ordered to continue moving south, and when the weather completely deteriorated, the ships anchored in the Bay of St. Julian (San Julian) to spend the winter there. The captains of three ships (Spaniards by nationality) mutinied, seized the ships and decided not to continue the first trip around the world, but to head for the Cape of Good Hope and from there to their homeland. People loyal to the admiral managed to do the impossible - recapture the ships and cut off the rebels' escape route.

Strait of All Saints

One captain was killed, another was executed, the third was put ashore. Magellan pardoned the ordinary rebels, which once again proved his foresight. Only at the end of the summer of 1520 did the ships leave the bay and continue searching for the strait. During a storm, the ship Santiago sank. And on October 21, the sailors finally discovered a strait, more reminiscent of a narrow crevice between the rocks. Magellan's ships sailed along it for 38 days.

The admiral called the coast remaining on the left hand Tierra del Fuego, since Indian fires burned on it around the clock. It was thanks to the discovery of the Strait of All Saints that Ferdinand Magellan began to be considered the one who made the first trip around the world. Subsequently, the Strait was renamed Magellan.

Pacific Ocean

Only three ships left the strait for the so-called “South Sea”: “San Antonio” disappeared (simply deserted). The sailors liked the new waters, especially after the turbulent Atlantic. The ocean was named Pacific.

The expedition headed northwest, then west. For several months the sailors sailed without seeing any signs of land. Starvation and scurvy caused the death of almost half the crew. Only at the beginning of March 1521 did ships approach two yet undiscovered inhabited islands from the Mariana group. From here it was already close to the Philippines.

Philippines. Death of Magellan

The discovery of the islands of Samar, Siargao and Homonkhon greatly pleased the Europeans. Here they regained their strength and communicated with local residents, who willingly shared food and information.

Magellan's servant, a Malay, spoke fluently with the natives in the same language, and the admiral realized that the Moluccas were very close. By the way, this servant, Enrique, ultimately became one of those who made the first trip around the world, unlike his master, who was not destined to land on the Moluccas. Magellan and his people intervened in an internecine war between two local princes, and the navigator was killed (either with a poisoned arrow or with a cutlass). Moreover, after some time, as a result of a treacherous attack by savages, his closest associates, experienced Spanish sailors, died. The team was so thin that it was decided to destroy one of the ships, the Concepcion.

Moluccas. Return to Spain

Who led the first voyage around the world after Magellan's death? Juan Sebastian del Cano, Basque sailor. He was among the conspirators who presented Magellan with an ultimatum at San Julian Bay, but the admiral forgave him. Del Cano commanded one of the two remaining ships, the Victoria.

He ensured that the ship returned to Spain loaded with spices. This was not easy to do: the Portuguese were waiting for the Spaniards off the coast of Africa, who from the very beginning of the expedition did everything to upset the plans of their competitors. The second ship, the flagship Trinidad, was boarded by them; the sailors were enslaved. Thus, in 1522, 18 members of the expedition returned to San Lucar. The cargo they delivered covered all the costs of the expensive expedition. Del Cano was awarded a personal coat of arms. If in those days anyone had said that Magellan made the first trip around the world, he would have been ridiculed. The Portuguese only faced accusations of violating royal instructions.

Results of Magellan's journey

Magellan explored the eastern coast of South America and discovered a strait from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Thanks to his expedition, people received strong evidence that the Earth was indeed round, they were convinced that the Pacific Ocean was much larger than expected, and that sailing on it to the Moluccas was unprofitable. Europeans also realized that the World Ocean is one and washes all continents. Spain satisfied its ambitions by announcing the discovery of the Mariana and Philippine Islands, and laid claim to the Moluccas.

All the great discoveries made during this voyage belong to Ferdinand Magellan. So the answer to the question of who made the first trip around the world is not so obvious. In fact, this man was del Cano, but still the main achievement of the Spaniard was that the world generally learned about the history and results of this voyage.

The first round-the-world voyage of Russian navigators

In 1803-1806, Russian sailors Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky made a large-scale journey through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. Their goals were: exploring the Far Eastern outskirts of the Russian Empire, finding a convenient trade route to China and Japan by sea, and providing the Russian population of Alaska with everything they needed. The navigators (set off on two ships) explored and described Easter Island, the Marquesas Islands, the coast of Japan and Korea, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin and Yesso Island, visited Sitka and Kodiak, where Russian settlers lived, and also delivered an ambassador from the emperor to Japan. During this voyage, domestic ships visited high latitudes for the first time. The first round-the-world trip of Russian explorers had a huge public resonance and contributed to increasing the prestige of the country. Its scientific significance is no less great.

O. E. KOTZEBUE'S CIRCUMSTANCES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. Part 1

Almost continuous wars in Europe and the established opinion that it was impossible to open the Southern Continent and navigate the northwestern sea passage were the reasons why these tasks were temporarily abandoned. However, among some scientists the idea continued to develop that the northwest passage and the South Land existed.

Russian scientists and navigators were haunted by the idea of ​​exploring the northern sea route from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean (northwest and northeast passages), as well as the search for the southern continent. The first problem was studied by the voyages of O. E. Kotzebue on the sloop “Rurik”, the expedition of M. N. Vasilyev and G. S. Shishmarev, the second was solved by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev.

Otto Evstafievich Kotzebue (1788-1846) made three voyages around the world: the first as a cadet of the Naval Corps on the ship Nadezhda under the command of I. F. Krusenstern in 1803-1806, the second as commander of the ship Rurik (1815-1818) and the third - on the sloop of war "Enterprise" (1823-1826).

O. E. Kotzebue

Kotzebue's voyage on the Rurik was the fourth circumnavigation of the world by Russian sailors and took place shortly after the Patriotic War of 1812. The expedition was undertaken to solve the problem of the northwestern sea passage from the Bering Strait. Its initiator and soul was Kruzenshtern, whose idea was supported by Count N.P. Rumyantsev, who took upon himself all the expenses of the expedition. Kruzenshtern studied the entire previous history of the study of the sea passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and convinced Rumyantsev of the advisability of repeating this enterprise. It was decided to equip two ships to explore the northwest passage. One was supposed to leave Russia and sail to the Bering Strait, from where, rounding North America, it should go east;

Another ship, chartered on the east coast of the United States, was supposed to begin exploring the “northwest passage” from east to west after the first ship had completed its voyage. Kruzenshtern and Rumyantsev understood well that even if the expedition did not solve the main problem - opening a route through the northwestern sea passage, then even then it could deliver important information for science and navigation. The mission of the expedition also included exploring the coast of North America south and east of the Bering Strait, penetrating the territory of modern Alaska into completely unknown inland areas, and exploring the islands in the central part of the Pacific Ocean. O. E. Kotzebue was appointed head of the expedition, and G. S. Shishmarev was appointed his assistant. Natural scientists Dr. I. I. Eshsholz and A. L. Shamisso were invited to join the expedition.

The expedition was equipped with advanced astronomical and physical instruments (masters Troughton, Massey, etc.), the latest editions of maps and atlases (collections of Garsburg, Arrosmith, Purdy, etc.), and geographical works. The commander of the ship "Rurik" O. E. Kotzebue received very detailed "Instructions": on navigation - from I. F. Kruzenshtern and on scientific observations - from I. K. Horner.

I. F. Kruzenshtern was working at that time on the atlas of the Southern Ocean and, better than anyone else, knew all the dangerous places for swimming, the areas most interesting for research and geographical discoveries. All this was reflected in the instructions. “I wish you to take a completely new course across the Southern (Pacific - B.E.) Ocean,” he pointed out, “on which it is almost impossible not to make new discoveries.” Kotzebue had to pay great attention to checking the dubious discoveries made at different times by other navigators: the Dutch (Schouten, Lehmer, Roggewijn), the British (Vancouver, Cook, etc.) and the French (Bougainville, La Perouse, Florier). Many open lands, especially islands in the Pacific Ocean, did not have precise geographic coordinates, or the same islands were mapped at different coordinates and had different names. “It may happen,” noted Kruzenshtern, “that the Russian sailor will be able to decide through his own observations on the spot, whose observations are more fair.”

Kotzebue had to start exploring the coast of North America from Norton Bay and describe not only the coast, but also collect information about the nature and population of the interior of Alaska, its rivers and lakes. Particular emphasis was placed on the need to describe the coast south of the bay as far as Unalaska, where no surveys had been taken before that time. J. Cook, in his last voyage (1776-1779), was unable to approach the coast in this area due to shallow water. Kotzebue had to do this using a canoe. In winter in the northern hemisphere, the expedition was supposed to explore the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean between the equator and 12° N. w. and 180-225° W. etc., while emphasizing that during the voyage it is necessary to pay attention to the Caroline Islands, which are still very poorly studied; when revisiting the northwestern coast of North America by kayak, continue exploring Norton Bay and Bristol Bay, delve deeper into the mainland, and study it geographically.

Dr. Horner recommended “carefully observing every extraordinary phenomenon and describing it in detail, especially measuring everything that can be measured” (Horner’s italics). The range of astronomical and physical observations included in Horner’s instructions was very wide. It included the determination of latitude and longitude, inventory of coasts and drawing up maps, measurement of mountain heights; studies of the inclination of the magnetic needle; observations of the state of the atmosphere (pressure, temperature, winds, etc.) and phenomena in the ocean (tides, currents, water temperature on the surface and at depths), determination of depths in the oceans, observations of the color and transparency of water, ice formation, etc. At the same time, Horner gave methodological instructions and practical advice for carrying out scientific observations, pointing out the significance that they can have for the development of science. He wrote that “. in the sea it sometimes happens, as in the atmosphere, there is a current one above the other, and in different, mostly opposite directions,” and that the study of temperature conditions in the ocean “is extremely important for the general knowledge of the climates of our globe.”

Well-written instructions could not, of course, predetermine the results of the research. However, the good organization of the expedition, the experience of its leaders, their own knowledge, inventive mind and desire to serve science were the key to the success of the expedition.

Kotzebue's expedition headed to Kamchatka past the southern tip of South America - Cape Horn. Research began when the ship entered the Atlantic Ocean, but the sailors were most pleased with discoveries and research in the Pacific Ocean. Trying to accurately follow all the points of Krusenstern’s instructions, Kotzebue, already at the first stages of the voyage from Chile, determined the position of the island of Sales and began searching for the islands seen by Schouten and Lemaire.

In the central part of the Pacific Ocean, Kotzebue discovered and explored numerous groups of coral islands, undertook a search for islands previously mentioned by sailors and plotted on maps, and determined the coordinates of previously discovered islands (Palizer and Penrhyn Islands). The expedition made significant corrections and additions to the map of the Pacific Ocean. New groups of islands bearing Russian names were marked on it. In 1816, in the northern part of the Tuamotu archipelago, Kotzebue discovered the atolls of Rumyantsev (Tikei) and Spiridov (Takapoto), the Rurik chain (Arutua), Krusenstern Island (Tikehau) and in the Radak chain (Marshall Islands) - the Kutuzov islands (Utirik or Betton) and Suvorova (Taka).

While exploring the islands, the expedition overcame great difficulties and was exposed to dangers. So, two sailors first reached the open Rumyantsev Atoll by swimming, and then Kotzebue and other members of the expedition using a raft. Usually, travelers walked around the islands (when they could not land) or crossed them by land (when they landed and if they were not particularly large).

The expedition began exploring the North Pacific Ocean in July 1816. Kotzebue sailed past Bering Island to the west coast of St. Lawrence Island, and then climbed north to the Bering Strait. He stayed close to the American coast, although sometimes he saw the shores of Asia. About the island of St. Lawrence, which had not yet been visited by any navigator, Kotzebue wrote: “The visible part of the island (the northern part, where Kotzebue landed] and naturalists - V.E.) ... consists of quite high! snow-covered mountains; there is not a single tree, not even a small bush, that would decorate the bare cliffs; Occasionally, small grass only breaks through between the moss and a few skinny plants rise from the ground.” Kotzebue decided to describe Norton Bay on the way back. Having passed the latitude of Cape Prince of Wales, Kotzebue continued to describe the American coast. At this time, he saw the Gvozdev (Diomede) Islands and determined the geographical coordinates of some points and clearly saw a vast low-lying island. Following further to the northeast, Kotzebue discovered Shishmarev Bay and a small island in front of it, which he named Sarychev Island. “We were extremely happy about this discovery,” wrote Kotzebue, “for, although it was impossible to expect a passage to the Arctic Sea here, we nevertheless had the hope of penetrating quite far into the interior of the earth and collecting some important information for us.” Exploration of the bay and strait was hampered by many sandbanks and currents, so Kotzebue did not linger here, deciding to conduct an accurate hydrographic inventory next year on canoes (Fig. 5).

Soon the sailors saw the bay, which was named Kotzebue Bay at the general request of the crew. Individual islands, capes, and bays in the bay also received names (Shamisso Island, Eshsholza Bay, Omanchivyy Cape, Espenberg Cape, Good Hope Bay, Kruzenshtern Cape, etc.). Kotzebue Bay and its coast have been carefully examined and described by travelers. Kotzebue wrote that the bay named after him “should in time provide considerable benefits to the fur trade with which this country abounds,” and would provide a good shelter for all travelers who might be caught in storms in the Bering Strait. Kotzebue proposed to establish several Russian settlements here. Fossil ice was discovered in Eschscholza Bay, covered with a cap of earth and overgrown with moss and grasses. “Having removed this turf cover, no more than 1/2 foot deep, the ground was completely frozen,” wrote Kotzebue. Many animal remains and mammoth bones were found in glacial deposits.

The study of the natural conditions of the North American coast, the life and customs of the American inhabitants aroused Kotzebue's interest in the opposite, Asian coast. He decided to conduct a comparative study of the coasts of two different continents - America and Asia, separated by the Bering Strait. The expedition headed west and reached the Eastern Cape of Asia (Cape Dezhnev). Kotzebue and naturalists made observations on land and met with the local population. For the first time, a detailed description of Cape Dezhnev was made.

A comparative study of two separated regions of Asia and North America allowed Kotzebue to express very interesting and scientifically remarkable ideas: about the geological similarity of the coasts of the two continents, about the kinship of the peoples living on both coasts.

Observing the external structure of the coast of Cape Dezhnev, Kotzebue wrote: “This destruction of terrible cliffs makes a person reflect on the great transformations that once followed in nature here; for the appearance and position of the coast gives rise to the likelihood that Asia was once connected to America; Gvozdev Islands (Diomede. - V. E.) are the remains of the former connection of Cape Vostochny (Cape Dezhnev. - V. E.) with Cape Prince of Wales (Welsh. - V. E.)." He pointed out the similar external features of the local inhabitants of Asia and North America and noted: “In general, I find the difference between these two peoples so insensitive that I am even inclined to consider them descended from the same tribe.” However, despite the common origin, as was later confirmed, the local residents of North America and Asia were strongly at enmity with each other and differed from each other in a number of customs.

From Cape Dezhnev and further south, to Cape St. Lawrence, the expedition carried out a systematic hydrographic inventory of the Asian coast, where new islands were discovered - Khromchenko and Petrov, named after the navigator students of the ship "Rurik" V. Khromchenko and V. Petrov, who performed the main hydrological work on the expedition. South of Cape St. Lawrence, an inventory was carried out earlier by Sarychev. Kotzebue described the Gulf of St. Lawrence for the second time (Fig. 6).

In early September 1816, having returned to Unalaska, Kotzebue turned to the ruler of the American Company with a request to prepare the necessary equipment (special kayaks, etc.) and local residents (Aleuts) for an expedition to describe the western coast of North America north of the Alaska Peninsula in the next year. From here the expedition headed to San Francisco and then to the Hawaiian Islands. During their stay on the islands, scientists and sailors, taking advantage of the friendly disposition of the local residents and government, visited the interior, described a number of harbors and identified the main heights on the Owaigii Muke Islands. The highest mountain was Mauna Roa (2482.7 ft.) on the island of Owaigi. Kopebu described in detail the harbor of Gana-Rura (Honolulu) on the island of Wagu (Oahu). Russian people became acquainted with farming and cultivating various crops on the islands (taro root, bananas, sugar cane, etc.).

Cassock. 5. Kotzebue’s voyage on the Rurik in the Bering and Chukchi seas

Many of the islands discovered by Copebu were well known to local residents. The natives quite accurately drew their relative positions on the sand and indicated the direction where the Others were located. The natives Kadu and Edoku provided great assistance to Kotzebue in finding the islands, as well as in drawing up a map of his archipelago of islands. From their words, the Ralik group of islands, belonging to the Marshall Islands and located to the west of the Radak group, was mapped. Kotzebue did not have time to examine it, since he had to return to the northern part of the Pacific Ocean.

Rice. 6. Map from the “Atlas” of G. A. Sarychev (1826), drawn from the map of O. E. Kotzebue

Kotzebue not only discovered and described many of the coral islands, but also explained the nature of their formation. Considerable time was devoted to the study of Rumyantsev (Votje) Atoll. “The Vulture Islands,” wrote Kotzebue, “already arouse great curiosity by their nature, being formed solely by sea animals, and I decided to venture as far as possible before I abandoned the intention of penetrating this chain of islands.”

Exploring one island after another, Kotzebue and especially the naturalists of the expedition, Chamisso and Eschscholz, had already come to the correct explanation of their origin, that is, from “sea animals.” “Having examined the properties of the soil, we found,” Kotzebue wrote about one of the coral islands, “that this island (Goat Island - V.E.), like all the others, consists of destroyed coral; this animal builds its building from the depths of the sea upward and dies when it reaches the surface; From this building, gray limestone is formed from its constant washing by sea water, which, it seems, forms the basis of all such islands.” Over time, plants settle on the islands, which then transform the soil and make the soil fertile. In terms of age, as Kotzebue noted, the islands are not the same. They are constantly changing and first acquire a closed ring with a lagoon in the center, and then the lagoons turn into land, forming one large island with the chain.

On the way from the tropical regions of the Pacific Ocean to Unalaska during a storm, the Rurik was damaged and Kotzebue was seriously wounded. However, illness did not stop Kotzebue from going and exploring the northern Bering Sea. Taking with him the prepared canoes and the Aleut, he left Unalaska to the north. Along the way, the islands of Akun and Akutan were described (May 1817), later seal rookeries were examined and the coordinates of Bobrovoy Island and others were determined. Having reached St. Lawrence Island, Kotzebue went ashore. Due to Kotzebue's illness, the expedition was forced to abandon further exploration of the northwestern coast of North America and return to their homeland. We returned to St. Petersburg along the Pacific Ocean through the Hawaiian, Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands and further around Asia and Africa. Kotzebue explored the Marshall Islands for the third time and on October 23, 1817, discovered the inhabited Heiden Atoll (Likiep), essentially completing the discovery of the Radak chain. The Russian sailors were struck by the desolation of the Mariana Islands, which were densely populated in the time of Magellan. The entire indigenous population of the islands was exterminated by the Spanish colonialists. “The sight of this beautiful land gave birth to sad feelings in me,” Kotzebue wrote; in former times, these fertile valleys served as an abode for the people, who spent their days in silence and happiness; Now there were only lovely palm forests standing here and overshadowing the graves of the former inhabitants. Deathly silence reigned everywhere." Almost the entire chain of the Mariana Islands was uninhabited, only a few were inhabited by immigrants from Mexico and the Philippine Islands.

During the voyage, Kotzebue's expedition carried out meteorological and oceanographic observations. Measurements of the depths of the sea were carried out widely using a specially designed device, the temperature of the water at depth was measured, and samples of soil and sea water were taken. In 1815, Kotzebue made several depth measurements in the Atlantic Ocean (up to 138 fathoms); the next year in the Pacific Ocean, the lot dropped to a depth of up to 300 fathoms. The transparency of the water was noted using a simple method - lowering a white plate, which later formed the basis of a device for determining the transparency of sea water and called the Secchi disk. Transparency was uneven and ranged from 2 to 13 fathoms. On September 4, 1817, Kotzebue reached a record depth when measuring sea water temperature in the Pacific Ocean, at coordinates 35°51"N and 147°38"W. The village of Lotlin sank to a depth of 408 fathoms, and seven intermediate observations were made. The water temperature at the surface of the ocean was plus 72° F, and at the maximum depth - plus 42° F. The transparency of the water was 11 fathoms. When the thermometer was lowered to a depth of 500 fathoms, the cable broke and the experiment failed. On September 26, 1817, sea water temperature was measured at 12 points at different depths.

Returning to Russia, Kotzebue and his scientist companions undertook work to summarize the materials of the expedition. In 1822-1823 The essay “Journey to the Southern Ocean and the Bering Strait...” was published. Three books of work covered the preparation and progress of the expedition, the results of the research. The work contained: Kotzebue's report on the expedition (parts I-II), articles by Krusenstern (parts I-II), articles by I. Horner, A. Chamisso, I. Eschscholz and M. Engelhart (part III).

I. F. Kruzenshtern, in the article “Consideration of the discoveries made in the Great Ocean from the ship “Rurik”,” summed up Kotzebue’s geographical discoveries and gave them a fair assessment. Oi noted the outstanding significance of the discoveries for science and navigation, and compared what Kotzebue did with the achievements of the largest European navigators, such as Cook, Bougainville and Flinders. He exposed the attacks and mistrust of Kotzebue's discoveries on the part of some European scientists.

Kotzebue not only made extremely important discoveries, but also “closed” many problematic discoveries of earlier navigators (in the central part of the Pacific Ocean), examined and described groups of islands, information about which was quite approximate. For example, the Penrhyn Islands, discovered in 1788, were mistaken by the British for one island. Russian navigators counted 15 islands. Kotzebue was the first to accurately determine their latitude (9°1"30"N) and longitude (157°34"32"W). Kotzebue discovered six groups of islands, which he named by the common name Radak, and indicated the location and names of the islands in the neighboring Ralik archipelago.

The atlas compiled by Kotzebue contained plans and maps of the places, coasts and harbors he marked and described. It was widely used both in navigation and for the compilation of special maritime atlases.

As a result of Kotzebue's voyage, a description was given of the nature of the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean and a hypothesis about their origin was most clearly stated. Charles Darwin pointed this out more than once. In a study specifically devoted to this issue, in 1842, he wrote: “An older and more satisfactory theory (of the origin of coral islands - V.E.) was proposed by Chamisso: he believes that since the more massive species of corals prefer the surf, the outer parts of the reef are the first to reach the surface and therefore form a ring." A more detailed examination of the structure of coral islands and an explanation of their genesis was made by I. I. Eshsholtz in his special article “On Coral Islands” (Fig. 7). “The low-lying islands of the South and Indian Seas,” he wrote, “owe for the most part their origin to the industrious structure of various genera of corals... corals founded their building on sea shoals, or better to say, on the tops of mountains under water. Continuing their growth, on the one hand, they are constantly getting closer and closer to the surface of the sea, and on the other, they are expanding the vastness of their structure (“Journey to the Southern Ocean...”, Part III, p. 381). When the island reaches the surface, the animal dies. Shells, mollusks, and physical weathering processes come into play to transform the solid surface. Then plants and birds appear, for which man comes. This is, in general terms, the picture of the formation and settlement of coral islands, according to the ideas of Russian scientists of that time.

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Traveling around the world is inherently the oldest method of understanding the world. For the development of society, this was the only opportunity to learn about the physical topography of the planet, new peoples, their forms of economy and life structure from eyewitnesses who had visited distant lands.

In different centuries, trips around the world were carried out with different motivations. In the XVI-XVII centuries. travelers were searching for new trade and sea routes, new lands for colonial conquest. Along the way, stunning discoveries were made that completely changed ideas about the world around us.

Pioneers of the sea

The first circumnavigation of the world was undertaken at the beginning of the 16th century. a naval expedition led by the Spaniard F. Magellan, which intended to find a western route to the West Indies. Instead, travelers proved the sphericity of the planet, the existence of a single World Ocean and the predominance of water space over land territory. The discovery of the coasts of South America and the Strait of Magellan, the Patagonian Cordillera and Tierra del Fuego, the Mariana and Philippine Islands made a huge contribution to the system of knowledge of civilized humanity.

A little later, the English pirates F. Drake and T. Cavendish undertook the second and third voyages around the world, the purpose of which was to rob Spanish ports on the American coast and capture merchant ships flying the Spanish flag. Only Drake's expedition left serious consequences for natural science. She discovered the western coast of the South American continent and the strait, which was later named after the pirate.

Subsequently, with varying degrees of scientific value, voyages around the world were carried out by the Dutch O. van Noort, J. Lemer and W. Schouten, A. Roggeveen, the Englishmen W. Damper, S. Wallis, and the Frenchman L. A. de Bougainville. With the expedition of the last explorer, dressed in men's clothing, a woman circumnavigated the world for the first time - Jeanne Barre. As a result, Fr. Estados and Fr. Easter, Cape Horn, Pacific Islands, Melanesia, Australia, Polynesia, the island groups of Tuamotu and Samoa, Louisiada and the Solomon Islands have been explored.

The 3 journeys of the Englishman J. Cook, made by him at the end of the 18th century, are important for science. Their main goal was to search for the unknown southern continent, which would be included in the English possessions, and to describe its riches. Along the way, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean was discovered, the coast of New Zealand and the north-west of North America was explored, the Great Barrier Reef and the Hawaiian Islands were discovered.

Explorers of the Universe

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. The expeditions that gained wide scope began to be of purely scientific interest, meeting the needs of descriptive regional geography in studying the characteristics of a particular area. Among these travelers were many Russian explorers and pioneers.

A. Chekhov wrote about them that such people constitute the most cheerful and poetic element of society. They awaken interest and ennoble with their existence. Many of them, due to their research qualities and breadth of knowledge, can successfully replace hundreds of worthy books and dozens of educational institutions. The writer believed that “their ideological spirit, noble ambition, based on the honor of their homeland and science, their persistent, invincible desire for the intended goal, no matter the hardships, dangers and temptations of personal happiness, the wealth of their knowledge and hard work... make them in the eyes of the people ascetics, embodying the highest moral force”.

For the first time, a Russian expedition under the leadership of I. Kruzenshtern and O. Lisyansky set off on a circumnavigation of the world at the beginning of the 19th century. Then Russian sailors sailed around the world under the command of M. Lazarev, O. Kotzebue, V. Golovin, F. Bellingshausen, M. Vasiliev, G. S. Shishmarev. As a result, territories in the area of ​​modern Japan and about. Sakhalin, the coast of Northeast Asia is described, a number of Pacific islands and attols are discovered (including the Suvorov Islands), the shores of Alaska, Kotzebue Bay, another continent - Antarctica, the Bellinghausen Sea. During the voyages, oceanic research was carried out, in particular, the vertical distribution of temperature and salinity in the waters of the Pacific Ocean; daily temperature fluctuations of air masses in different climatic zones; testing the operation of the newly invented depth gauge and marine barometer.

In the second half of the 19th century, round-the-world voyages on steamships were undertaken for research purposes by the English team of D. Nares and Russian sailors led by S. Makarov. At the beginning of the twentieth century, D. Spokham, G. Pidgeon, A. Gerbaut single-handedly circumnavigated the globe for sports and tourism purposes.

Time for records

The 60-70s of the last century are known for several diverse voyages around the world:

- the first “circumnavigation” of Soviet submarines without surfacing;

— the first “single sailing” without entering a port, accomplished by Robin Knox-Johnston;

- the first female solo circumnavigation of the world, undertaken by Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz.

In 1990-1991, F. Konyukhov undertook the first Russian solo trip around the world without stopping on a yacht. And in 2005, the world's first youth trip was made.

In most cases, modern trips around the world are of a sporting and competitive nature with the aim of setting records or have tourist and entertainment interest. Many travel companies offer those wishing to travel around the world “across the seas, oceans, islands and continents” on luxury cruise ships. But can such a journey replace the excitement of exploration, unpredictable risk and unexpected discoveries that accompanied the pioneering sailors of the past?

The idea of ​​circumnavigating the world in Russia has been floating around for quite some time. However, the first project for a trip around the world was developed and prepared only towards the end of the 18th century. The team of four ships was to be led by Captain G.I. Mulovsky, however, due to the war with Sweden, Russia canceled this expedition. In addition, its potential leader died in battle.

It is noteworthy that on the battleship Mstislav, whose commander was Mulovsky, young Ivan Kruzenshtern served as a midshipman. It was he, who became the leader of the implementation of the idea of ​​Russian circumnavigation, who would later lead the first Russian circumnavigation. At the same time as Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky, his classmate, sailed on another battleship, which also took part in naval battles. Both sailed in the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans. Having fought on the side of the British against the French and returning to their homeland, both received the rank of captain-lieutenant.

Kruzenshtern presented his project for a circumnavigation of the world to Paul I. The main goal of the project was to organize fur trade between Russia and China. However, this idea did not evoke the response that the captain had hoped for.

In 1799, the Russian-American Company was founded, the goal of which was to develop Russian America and the Kuril Islands and establish regular communications with overseas colonies.

The relevance of circumnavigation was due to the urgent need to maintain Russian colonies on the North American continent. Supplying food and goods to the colonists, providing settlers with weapons (the problem of frequent raids by the indigenous population (Indians), as well as potential threats from other powers) - these were pressing issues facing the Russian state. It was important to establish regular communication with the Russian colonists for their normal life. By this time it became clear that passage through the polar seas was postponed for an indefinite future. The journey by land, through all of Siberia and the Far East off-road, and then across the Pacific Ocean, is a very expensive and time-consuming “pleasure.”

From the beginning of the reign of Paul I's son Alexander, the Russian-American Company began to be under the patronage of the royal house. (It is noteworthy that the first director of the Russian-American Company was Ustyug resident Mikhail Matveevich Buldakov, who actively supported the idea of ​​circumnavigation financially and organizationally).

In turn, Emperor Alexander I supported Kruzenshtern in his desire to explore the possibilities of communication between Russia and North America, appointing him head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

Captains Kruzentshtern and Lisyansky, having received two sloops under their command: “Nadezhda” and “Neva”, carefully approached the preparation of the expedition, purchasing a large amount of medicines and anti-scorbutic drugs, staffing the crews with the best Russian military sailors. It is interesting that all the cargo on the ship “Neva” was managed by another Ustyuzhan (here it is - the continuity of generations of Russian explorers) Nikolai Ivanovich Korobitsyn. The expedition was well equipped with various modern measuring instruments, since its tasks included scientific purposes (the expedition included astronomers, naturalists, and an artist).

At the beginning of August 1803, with a large crowd of people, Kruzenshtern's expedition left Kronstadt on two sailing sloops - Nadezhda and Neva. On board the Nadezhda there was a mission to Japan led by Nikolai Rezanov. The main purpose of the voyage was to explore the mouth of the Amur and neighboring territories to identify convenient places and routes for supplying goods to the Russian Pacific Fleet. After a long stay near the island of Santa Catarina (the coast of Brazil), when two masts had to be replaced on the Neva, the ships crossed the equator for the first time in the history of the Russian fleet and headed south. On March 3, they rounded Cape Horn and separated three weeks later in the Pacific Ocean. From the island of Nuku Hiva (Marquesas Islands), the sloops proceeded together to the Hawaiian Islands, where they separated again.

On July 1, 1804, the Neva arrived at Kodiak Island and remained off the coast of North America for more than a year. The sailors helped the inhabitants of Russian America defend their settlements from the attack of the Tlingit Indian tribes, participated in the construction of the Novo-Arkhangelsk (Sitka) fortress, and carried out scientific observations and hydrographic work.

At the same time, “Nadezhda” arrived in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in July 1804. Then Krusenstern took Rezanov to Nagasaki and back, describing the northern and eastern shores of Terpeniya Bay along the way.

In the summer of 1805, Kruzenshtern for the first time photographed about 1000 km of the coast of Sakhalin, tried to pass in the south between the island and the mainland, but could not and mistakenly decided that Sakhalin was not an island and was connected to the mainland by an isthmus.

In August 1805, Lisyansky sailed on the Neva with a cargo of furs to China, and in November arrived at the port of Macau, where he again connected with Kruzenshtern and Nadezhda. But as soon as the ships left the port, they lost each other again in the fog. Following independently, Lisyansky, for the first time in the history of world navigation, navigated a ship without calling at ports or stops from the coast of China to Portsmouth in England. On July 22, 1806, his Neva was the first to return to Kronstadt.

Lisyansky and his crew became the first Russian circumnavigators. Only two weeks later the Nadezhda arrived here safely. But the fame of the circumnavigator mainly went to Krusenstern, who was the first to publish a description of the trip. His three-volume book “A Journey Around the World...” and “Atlas for a Journey” was published three years earlier than the works of Lisyansky, who considered his duties to be more important than the publication of a report for the Geographical Society. And Kruzenshtern himself saw in his friend and colleague, first of all, “an impartial, obedient person, zealous for the common good,” extremely modest. True, Lisyansky’s merits were nevertheless noted: he received the rank of captain of the 2nd rank, the Order of St. Vladimir of the 3rd degree, a cash bonus and a lifelong pension. For him, the main gift was the gratitude of the officers and sailors of the sloop, who endured the hardships of the voyage with him and gave him as a souvenir a golden sword with the inscription: “Gratitude of the crew of the ship “Neva.”

The participants of the first Russian round-the-world expedition made a significant contribution to geographical science by erasing a number of non-existent islands from the map and clarifying the position of existing ones. They discovered inter-trade countercurrents in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, measured water temperature at depths of up to 400 m and determined its specific gravity, transparency and color; found out the reason for the glow of the sea, collected numerous data on atmospheric pressure, ebbs and flows in a number of areas of the World Ocean.

During his travels, Lisyansky collected an extensive natural and ethnographic collection, which later became the property of the Russian Geographical Society (one of the initiators of which was Kruzenshtern).

Three times in his life Lisyansky was the first: the first to travel around the world under the Russian flag, the first to pave the way from Russian America to Kronstadt, the first to discover an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean.

The first Russian round-the-world trip by Kruzenshtern-Lisyansky turned out to be practically a standard in terms of its organization, support and execution. At the same time, the expedition proved the possibility of communication with Russian America.

The enthusiasm after the return of the Nadezhda and Neva to Kronstadt was so great that in the first half of the 19th century, more than 20 circumnavigations were organized and completed, which is more than France and England combined.

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern became the inspirer and organizer of subsequent expeditions, the leaders of which were, among other things, members of the crew of his sloop Nadezhda.

Midshipman Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen traveled on the Nadezhda, who would later discover Antarctica in 1821 on a circumnavigation of the world in high southern latitudes.

Otto Evstafievich Kotzebue sailed on the same sloop as a volunteer, under whose leadership 2 circumnavigations were carried out.

In 1815-18, Kotzebue led a round-the-world research expedition on the brig Rurik. At Cape Horn, during a storm (January 1816), a wave washed him overboard; he saved himself by grabbing a rope. After an unsuccessful search for the fantastic “Davis Land” west of the coast of Chile, at 27° S. latitude. in April-May 1816 he discovered the inhabited island of Tikei, the atolls of Takapoto, Arutua and Tikehau (all in the Tuamotu archipelago), and in the Ratak chain of the Marshall Islands - the atolls of Utirik and Taka. At the end of July - mid-August, Kotzebue described the coast of Alaska for almost 600 km, discovered Shishmarev Bay, Sarychev Island and the vast Kotzebue Bay, and in it - the Bay of Good Hope (now Goodhope) and Eschscholtz with the Khoris Peninsula and Shamisso Island (all names are given in honor of the participants in the voyage). Thus, he completed the identification of the Seward Peninsula, begun by Mikhail Gvozdyov in 1732. To the northeast of the bay, he noted high mountains (spurs of the Brooks Range).

Together with the naturalists of Rurik, for the first time in America, Kotzebue discovered fossil ice with a mammoth tusk and gave the first ethnographic description of the North American Eskimos. In January-March 1817, he again explored the Marshall Islands and discovered seven inhabited atolls in the Ratak chain: Medjit, Votje, Erikub, Maloelap, Aur, Ailuk and Bikar. He also mapped a number of atolls whose coordinates his predecessors had identified incorrectly and “closed” several non-existent islands.

In 1823-26, commanding the sloop Enterprise, Kotzebue completed his third circumnavigation of the world. In March 1824 he discovered the inhabited atoll of Fangahina (in the Tuamotu archipelago) and the island of Motu-One (in the Society archipelago), and in October 1825 - the Rongelap and Bikini atolls (in the Ralik chain, Marshall Islands). Together with naturalists on both voyages, Kotzebue made numerous determinations of the specific gravity, salinity, temperature and transparency of sea water in temperate and hot zones. They were the first to establish four features of near-surface (up to a depth of 200 m) oceanic waters: their salinity is zonal; the waters of the temperate zone are less salty than those of the hot zone; water temperature depends on the latitude of the place; Seasonal temperature fluctuations appear up to a certain limit, below which they do not occur. For the first time in the history of ocean exploration, Kotzebue and his companions made observations of the relative transparency of water and its density.

Another famous navigator was Vasily Mikhailovich Golovnin, who, having traveled around the world on the sloop "Diana", in 1817 led an expedition on the sloop "Kamachtka". Many members of the ship's crew in the future became the colors of the Russian fleet: midshipman Fyodor Petrovich Litke (later captain of the circumnavigation), volunteer Fyodor Matyushin (later admiral and senator), junior watch officer Ferdinand Wrangel (admiral and Arctic explorer) and others. In two years, "Kamchatka" passed the Atlantic Ocean from north to south, rounded Cape Horn, visited Russian America, visited all significant groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean, then passed the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Kronstadt through the Atlantic Ocean.

Fyodor Litke two years later was appointed head of the polar expedition on the ship Novaya Zemlya. For four years, Litke explored the Arctic, summarizing rich expeditionary materials, and published the book “Four-time voyages to the Arctic Ocean on the military brig “Novaya Zemlya” in 1821-1824.” The work was translated into many languages ​​and received scientific recognition; sailors used the maps of the expedition for a century.

In 1826, when Fyodor Litka was not even 29 years old, he led an expedition around the world on the new ship Senyavin. The Senyavin was accompanied by the sloop Moller under the command of Mikhail Stanyukovich. The ships turned out to be different in their running characteristics (“Moller” is much faster than “Senyavin”) and almost throughout the entire length the ships sailed alone, meeting only at anchorages in ports. The expedition, which lasted three years, turned out to be one of the most successful and rich in scientific discoveries of travel, not only Russian, but also foreign. The Asian coast of the Bering Strait was explored, islands were discovered, materials on ethnography and oceanography were collected, and numerous maps were compiled. During the trip, Litke was engaged in scientific research in the field of physics; experiments with a pendulum allowed the scientist to determine the magnitude of the Earth's polar compression and make a number of other important discoveries. After the end of the expedition, Litke published “A Voyage Around the World on the Sloop of War “Senyavin” in 1826-1829”, gaining recognition as a scientist, and was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences.

Litke became one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society, and for many years was its vice-chairman. In 1873, the society established the Great Gold Medal named after. F. P. Litke, awarded for outstanding geographical discoveries.

The names of brave travelers, heroes of Russian round-the-world expeditions are immortalized on maps of the globe:

A bay, peninsula, strait, river and cape on the coast of North America in the area of ​​the Alexandra Archipelago, one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, an underwater island in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and a peninsula on the northern coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk are named after Lisyansky.

A number of straits, islands, capes in the Pacific Ocean, a mountain in the Kuril Islands are named after Krusenstern.

The following are named in honor of Litke: a cape, a peninsula, a mountain and a bay on Novaya Zemlya; islands: in the Franz Josef Land archipelago, Baydaratskaya Bay, Nordenskiöld archipelago; strait between Kamchatka and Karaginsky Island.

In circumnavigation of the world in the 19th century, expedition members showed their best qualities: Russian navigators, military men and scientists, many of whom became the color of the Russian fleet, as well as domestic science. They forever inscribed their names in the glorious chronicle of “Russian civilization.”