Causes of the Russian-Polish War 1733 1735. War for the “Polish Succession” (1733-1739)

Oh! Gdansk, ah! what do you dare?

You see that the Alcides are ready;

You see the troubles are severe for the inhabitants;

You can hear Anna's anger...

Vasily Trediakovsky

The War of the Polish Succession is an insignificant episode, a fleeting operation, nevertheless it was of great importance not so much for the history of Russia as for the history of Poland, being an important step towards the active intervention of its neighbors in its internal affairs, which ultimately led to the disappearance of Rech The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a sovereign state.

N.I. Pavlenko

From the beginning of 1733, serious political problems arose in the Kingdom of Poland. King Augustus II, who arrived in Warsaw to convene the Extraordinary Sejm, died there on February 1st. Fedor Potocki, Archbishop of Gniezno, Primate of the Kingdom of Poland, accepted the regency and convened a Diet, at which it was decided not to elect a foreign prince as king, but to choose a person from the Piast dynasty or a local nobleman. St. Petersburg and Vienna approved this decision of the Sejm, and the ambassadors of Russia and Austria expressed their support to the Poles (i.e., they sought to prevent the election of Stanislav as king). At that time, both courts (Petersburg and Vienna) were not favored by Augustus III, Elector of Saxony. The Elector settled the differences by signing a pragmatic sanction, and promised Russia to consult with the Empress on issues of Courland. Now Austria and Russia sided with Augustus.

The Russian Ambassador was instructed to announce to Primate F. Potocki that the Russian court would support the Elector if Poland accepted him voluntarily.

The Russian government nominated 2 corps to conduct military operations: the 1st - in Ukraine, on the Lithuanian border, and the 2nd - in Livonia, on the Courland border. The French government also became more active, with the goal of electing Stanislaw Leszczynski as Polish king. The primate and most of the gentry, realizing that the Russians wanted to dominate Poland, united in favor of Stanislav. Stanislav was invited from France, the assembled Diet opened on August 25, 1733 and lasted until September 12, 1733 (until Stanislav Leszczynski was elected king). Stanisław arrived in Warsaw on September 9, 1733 and lived incognito in the house of the French envoy.

Empress Anna Ioannovna addressed the Lithuanians in writing with the goal of winning all the senators of the Grand Duchy to her side. Some of them separated from their Polish allies and crossed the Vistula (the bishops of Krakow and Poznan were also located here). Empress Anna Ioannovna ordered Count Lassi to enter Lithuania (with a force of 20 thousand people). As some historical sources of the 18th century indicate, the Poles themselves constantly provoked the Russians to war. At the same time, many representatives of the Polish nobility supported the adventurer Stanislav Leszczynski. P.P. Lassi commanded a group of about 12 thousand people and moved to Polish Prussia, and on January 16, 1734 he entered Thorn (the Polish city of Torun). On February 22, 1734, Russian troops approached Danzig (Gdansk), where Stanislav's supporters were concentrated.

The presence of the “king” Stanislaw Leszczynski and promises of support from the French encouraged considerable Polish forces concentrated in Danzig to actively defend. The armed forces of Stanislav Leszczynski numbered about 50 thousand people. At that time, the Russian command clearly did not have enough funds to besiege the city. At the same time, local battles took place in Poland in those days.

Here is a description of one of the typical skirmishes in the winter of 1734 near the village of Korselets (spelling preserved): “The Polish riflemen were attacked by Russian Cossacks and dragoons and the detachment commander rode out... to meet them at a trot and, running up to them, lured the first fire from the riflemen very early, so that over the long distance they did not harm a single person among the Cossacks. However, soon after this fire they (the Cossacks) galloped straight into the city again. And thus the shooters were encouraged to steal (i.e., pursue). For this reason, the aforementioned shooters, hoping that they had won, were approaching the city directly, but they did not notice that the Russian lieutenant colonel had broken the bridge at the mill and blocked their path to the forest from where they had come.

The Cossacks with their spears lined up against the riflemen, and the lieutenant colonel of his dragoons expected secondary fire from them, after which they, dismounting from their horses, fired at them, which caused these riflemen so sensitively that they thought of taking flight, but these Cossacks They created a strong obstacle, because they captured all the places where they could escape, from which they were finally forced to leave for the granaries. From one granary the riflemen defended themselves for some time by shooting, but then, when the dragoons and Cossacks suddenly surrounded the granary, they lit the granaries in different corners, and those who did not want to be burned by the Cossacks were stabbed with spears. It was also noted there that two shooters, seeing their comrades stabbed to death, crossed themselves, again ran into the fire and in it they burned with their comrades...

At the same time, while the granaries were still burning, it happened that one grenadier from the dragoons, an old gray-haired rifleman who had emerged from them, was picked up with a fixed bayonet and was repeatedly stabbed so cruelly that the entire bayonet bent, but he could not harm him in the least, why did he He called his officer, who first chopped him in the head several times with a broadsword, and then stabbed him in the ribs, but even he could not kill him, until finally the Cossacks chopped off his head with large clubs, and the brain came out of it, but he is still alive been a long time."

In March 1734, Field Marshal Count Burchard Christopher Minich arrived in Danzig. He was entrusted with the main command of all Russian troops in Poland. Minikh immediately convened a military council, where he announced the empress’s command, “without further delay, to deal with the city hostilely, without any regret, and presented how he plans to take possession of the mountains immediately lying in front of the city.” Major General von Biron agreed with him, but the cautious generals Volynsky and Baryatinsky “remained of the opinion” that with such forces (without artillery, etc.) it was impossible to attack the mountains.

On March 9, 1734, Minich reports to St. Petersburg about the capture by attack of the rich, heavily fortified suburb of Danzig - a populated area in Scotland. “Minich wrote that it is impossible to describe and sufficiently praise the courage of the officers and soldiers that they showed during the attack, marching all night in the rain and strong wind. The next day the shelling of the city began...” The field marshal urgently called for reinforcements. A proclamation was sent to the city offering to hand over the keys within 24 hours. Seeing that there was no answer, Minikh ordered to open a trench and build a redoubt from the Tsigankenberg area. On the night of March 19-20, the Russians attacked the Oru fortification (400 garrison men) and successfully captured it after a two-hour battle. Russian artillerymen fired the first shots at the city (with eight-pound field guns).

On March 22, 1734, Minich reported to the Empress: “Every day, with avantage, I happily take one post after another from the enemy, by the way, one main post on the banks of the Vistula was taken on the night of the 21st to the 22nd, and a strong redoubt was made on the Russian side, which will stop enemy messages along the Vistula. Stanislav (his followers were still in the city on the third day; I hope that they are still there now), perhaps in flooded places in a beggar’s or priest’s dress one of them could leave the city; The residents of Danzig and their guests, like birds, have their heads covered with a net. At the present time of the year and due to the decrease in people who are constantly in the aproshes and at work, it is impossible to do more than what has been done, and only 77 people were lost and 202 people were wounded, the damage is very small, if we take into account that the enemy is constantly shooting into our aproshas and redoubts and almost not a single day passed without a sortie. I think that your Majesty is aware of the departure of King Augustus to Saxony, which is unpleasant for all the nobility; I wrote to him and advised him to return to Poland.”

The fort "Head of Danzig" was captured. Soon Elbing surrendered (where the Polish regiment had previously sworn allegiance to Augustus), and the city was occupied by a Russian garrison. At this moment, it became known about the movement of the allied corps of Count Tarlo and Castellan Chersky to the aid of Danzig. General Zagryazhsky and General Karl Biron (2,000 dragoons and 1,000 Cossacks) came forward to meet them. The enemy began to retreat in panic. The bridge over the Breda River was repaired, and Russian troops crossed it and pursued the enemy. Soon Tarlo will once again try to lift the siege of Danzig with a counterattack. Commander Minikh sends P.P. Lassi on April 17, 1734 to help the forces of Zagryazhsky (1,500 dragoons in total). Near the village of Wichesina, not far from the border of Pomerania, the enemy was attacked and scattered. The nobles fled, with about 10 thousand Poles, and 3,200 Russian dragoons and 1,000 Cossacks. Thus, the only “breakthrough attempt” was successfully eliminated by Russian troops.

Minikh, who punctually kept notes on every encounter with the enemy, reports his successes to St. Petersburg:

“Submitted on April 12, 1734 to the State Military College.

Report from Field Marshal Cavalier Count von Minich.

How... the city of Danzig and others nearby this place, with God's help and the high happiness of Her Imperial Majesty... with weapons against the enemy Minich, March 3.22 to 31, with considerable apantage, the things described truly took place in the State Military Collegium, I report in the magazine!

On April 30, 1734, a powerful shelling of the city began; from May 6 to 7, Minikh ordered the storming of Fort Zomershants (all communications with other settlements were stopped). Major General Luberas did not come to the aid of Minich's troops in time. However, Minich was forced to arrest Lyuberas for failure to comply with the orders of the commander-in-chief, but Biron's close associate Levenwolde rescued this general. An order came from the capital to speed up the siege operations. On May 9, 1734, about 8 thousand people were allocated to prepare an attack from Scheidlitz. At about 22 o'clock the troops left in three columns: the 1st - on the other side of the Vistula, the 2nd - against Bischofeberg and the 3rd - against the right side of Hagelsberg. The attack by well-organized troops began around midnight. An enemy battery was captured. The command suffered heavy losses. Minich gave the order to withdraw. However, the soldiers decided to fight to the end. In general, this outing can be considered extremely risky.

Burchard Minich reported on May 7: “So far, 1,500 bombs have already been thrown into the city, and, despite this, the besieged do not show any inclination to surrender; I have enough bombs for 10 days, and in the meantime, I hope that the Saxon or our siege artillery will not come.”

At this turning point, King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia (who promised assistance to Minich) declared neutrality and prevented the delivery of Russian artillery through his territories. Field Marshal Minich, demonstrating his extraordinary abilities as a diplomat, answered Frederick William: “Your royal majesty deigned to wait for a response from St. Petersburg to your proposal, but I reassure your royal majesty that my most gracious empress will seek the free passage of her troops, even if your majesty allows it.” the same to any of Stanislav’s allies, and since I am in a position to enter into business with all the French, Swedes and Poles expected here, I can reassure your royal majesty that her imperial majesty will not leave me in this, and therefore I ask send me your Majesty's decree to the rulers of Prussia about the passage of our artillery. I take courage

also present to your Majesty that France, during the thirteen-year war, was completely ruined and fell into debt, and Russia, during the 21-year war, did not do the slightest debt; So, may your royal majesty deign to show friendship to such a strong ally and not delay the artillery.”

On May 14, 1734, part of the Russian troops from Warsaw arrived at Danzig. On May 22, the Danzig magistrate proposed a two-day truce, but heavy fighting continued on both sides.

The French fleet arrived in the Bay of Danzig to help the Poles; 16 ships landed 3 landing regiments - Blaisois, Périgordsky, Lamarche - under the command of Brigadier La Motte de la Perouse, a total of 2,400 people. Then this meant direct French intervention in the Russian-Polish armed conflict.

The French attacked the Russian fortifications (retrachements), and the besieged inhabitants of the city, being in despair, made a sortie with 2 thousand infantry. Thus supporting the French. Russian troops pushed back the enemy. In this battle, Colonel Leslie of the Russian Olonets Dragoon Regiment distinguished himself.

Thus, for the first time in history, an armed clash occurred between the Russian and French armies.

B.H. Minich carried on a long and unpleasant correspondence with Frederick William and eventually resorted to a trick: siege mortars were delivered to the Russian army from Saxony in closed carriages under the guise of the carriages of the Elector of Württemberg.

6 Arutyunov S. A.161

On May 25, 1734, Saxon troops under the command of the Duke of Weissenfels arrived in the camp near Danzig to help Minich. Accompanied by the beating of drums and with unfurled banners, the French began an attack in three columns on the Russian retrenchments. But soon they, coming under artillery fire and suffering losses, retreated. The townspeople who had tried to support the French infantry also returned to the city. On the night of May 29, the Saxons replaced the Russians in the trenches, and on June 12, 1734, a Russian fleet appeared near Danzig (consisting of 16 battleships, 6 frigates and 7 other ships).

“This morning at 9 o’clock the French attacked our transients with great cruelty from the Veishelminda trenches, and, moreover, the Danzig residents launched a sortie from the city with 2000 people, who had cannons with them. I don’t know how many French there were, as they came out of the dense forest. As they approached our trenchment, their commander was shot at the very beginning, whom they recognized by the cavalry order he was wearing. On our side, very few were beaten during this action, and none of the headquarters and chief officers. Many dead French were found in the forest, and since our people chased them all the way to the Veishelminda trenches and spared no one, many of them were killed in the pursuit. Colonel Leslie, who was in command, received a slight wound, and the horse under him was shot. When our cannons began to shoot at those who came out of the city to help the French, they, without doing anything, were forced to return to the city.” These are the lines of the next report from the commander.

On June 14, Russian artillery resumed targeted fire on the city. The bomber ships of the Russian fleet began to fire at the Weixelmünd fort and the French camp, and already on June 19, 1734, Minich officially demanded the Poles surrender.

Negotiations with the French began. They demanded that their “corps” be sent to Copenhagen, but they were refused. The Russian command, showing humanism towards the vanquished, invited the French to leave the camp with full military honors and, boarding Russian ships, go to one of the Baltic ports. On June 24, 1734, after minor formalities, they were sent to Kronstadt. A few months later they were returned to France. On June 24, the Weichselmünd fort surrendered. A garrison of 468 people emerged from it and swore allegiance to the new Polish king, Augustus III.

On June 28, 1734, the Danzig magistrate sent envoys to Minich. Representatives of the magistrate informed Minich about the secret flight of Stanislav Leszczynski from the city. Minikh, enraged by such information, ordered the shelling to continue. On June 30, the city finally surrendered. The Polish lords (supporters of Stanislav) were “forgiven” and given freedom of choice. The primate, Count Poniatowski, and the Marquis de Monti were arrested and sent to Thorn.

The day before, on June 26, the “Gdansk Treaty of 1734 in 21 points was signed between Field Marshal Minich, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, the Saxon general and the deputies of the city of Gdansk, concluded on the recognition of the Elector of Saxony by the Polish King

Augustus III and other things." The contents of the “surrender” were as follows:

“...Danzig surrendered with the obligation to be loyal to King Augustus III; Polish nobles who were in the city - primate Potocki, bishop of Plock Załuski, Russian governor Czartoryski, governor of Mazovia Poniatowski and others - surrendered to the will and mercy of the Russian empress. The city of Danzig should send to St. Petersburg a solemn deputation from the most noble citizens at the choice of the empress with a request for the most merciful forgiveness; the troops stationed in the city surrendered as prisoners of war; the city undertook to never accept the empress’s enemies into its walls and to pay her a million broken efimki for military expenses.”

So, the siege of Danzig lasted 135 days. The losses of the Russian army were: 8 thousand soldiers and about 200 officers. An indemnity of 2 million efimki was imposed on the city in favor of the Russian Empress. As eyewitnesses noted, “not once in this war did 300 Russians turn a single step off the road to avoid meeting 3,000 Poles; they “beat” them every time.” Minikh, whom they repeatedly tried to “denigrate” in the eyes of Empress Anna Ioannovna, completely restored his influence in the Russian capital. Later, court gossips would accuse him of an “imprudent” assault on Hagelsberg...

In the summer of 1734, Field Marshal B.Kh. Minich received an order from Empress Anna Ioannovna that “local sejmiks should be properly covered and those who are well-intentioned there should be protected, and that all care and necessary alliances should be used to such an extent that these sejmiks would not be torn apart through intrigues and diligence of malicious people, but would truly take place and on these, such deputies could be elected who were completely inclined towards the king and the true well-being of their fatherland, which I would strongly confirm to all generals and commanders.”

A significant contribution to the description of the siege of Danzig was made by the son of Field Marshal Ernst Minich. He fully considers the activities of B.H. successful. Minich, as commander of the army, gives a detailed description of Danzig: “The city is regularly fortified, equipped with good external fortifications and many trenches lying around; on the one hand, it was impregnable due to the sunken land; The garrison in the city, to which the Polish Crown Guard and the newly founded dragoon regiment of the Marquis de Monti belonged, consisted of at least 10,000 regular troops. All fortifications were covered by a sufficient number of serviceable guns. There was no shortage of military ammunition, and there was so much grain in the merchant barns that the residents and the garrison could have food for several years...”

In addition to this, he cites his father’s statement regarding Leshchinsky’s flight:

“If it turned out that the magistrate took even the slightest part in this escape, then the payment fine would be increased by one million rubles.”

In general, the details of the War of the Polish Succession are too briefly reflected in studies of military history. There are objective reasons for this. These events did not have a significant impact on the course of development of Russia, but from the point of view of military historical science, apparently, this material is of no interest.

The presence of a group of Russian troops in Poland did not evoke any particular positive emotions among the Polish population. Thus, statistics provide data on voting at one of the congresses (near Grokhov) on the eve of the offensive of the Russian army. 60 thousand votes were cast for Stanislav, and only 4 thousand for Augustus III (Russia’s protégé).

After the events described here, the French navy no longer appeared in the Baltic Sea. The Russian army successfully finished off groups of Stanislav's adherents in Poland and Lithuania. However, the Russian troops were struck back by the Poles. “Sometimes large masses of Poles” approached Russian troops and, provoking them, retreated. The troops of General Izmailov successfully operated on the territory of Lithuania, and the forces of General Keith operated in Volyn and Podolia. Stanislav appeared in Konigsberg (the Prussian king provided him with his palace there). The danger of an alliance under the banner of Stanislav again arose. In August 1734, he signed a manifesto calling for a general confederation (formed in Dzikowo under the command of Adam Tarło). However, these forces again hoped for the support of France, the participation of Sweden and Turkey (in order to divert the Russian forces), etc. and so on.

“To calm Poland, Minich was sent, who, before leaving for the army on February 11, 1735, submitted the following report to the Empress:

Since the local corps of the marching commissariat commission is dissatisfied with its members, and, moreover, without authority, in many cases it demands a resolution in advance from the main Kriegskommissariat, which is why there is a big stop in business, as it actually happened when I was near Danzig, then this should be carried out supply the commission with members and determine that, without correspondence with the main Kriegskommissariat, it will carry out everything according to my proposals, and if there are people worthy of being in it in the local corps, then it would be customary to appoint them at my discretion. Resolution: to carry out this matter, and to appoint good and worthy people to the local commissariat with the consent of the local generals.

So that for couriers, spies and other emergency expenses, according to my proposals, money from the same commission will be allocated without any interruption; I will submit detailed reports about them. Resolution: release money without stopping according to the written demands of the Field Marshal.

If some foreign officers ask to be accepted into the Russian service, will those worthy be accepted with the same ranks? Resolution: to pass to the captain, and to report in detail about the staff officers, what their previous services and merits are.

So that I would be allowed to promote worthy officers to the ranks not by seniority or by standing, but by merit. Resolution: promote to captain, and report on higher ranks with a picture of their service.”

Thus, Minich streamlined the promotion to the ranks of foreign officers in the Russian service.

In April 1735, Minich arrived in Warsaw. The troops of Lublin governor Jan Tarlo (10 thousand people), who entered Poland and did not receive support from abroad, were completely demoralized. Stanislav Leszczynski himself wrote to Tarlo about the futility of continuing the war with Russia. Discipline in the Confederate troops fell, individual “warriors” began to scatter and surrendered to the Russians.

The Leshchinsky Case failed, and its supporters lost heart. The numerous Polish militias no longer represented any serious enemy. The Polish army was engaged in strife and only caused the Russians fatigue with the transitions.

“Sometimes,” writes adjutant Minich H.-G. Manstein, - large masses of Poles approached the Russian detachment, spreading rumors that they wanted to give battle, but before the Russians had time to fire two cannon shots, the Poles were already running. Never did a Russian detachment of 300 people turn off the road to avoid 3,000 Poles, because the Russians were used to beating them at all encounters...”

Little by little, the Polish troops went home, and the Russian troops could easily take winter quarters in the country of Augustus III. During the campaign of 1735, the St. Petersburg cabinet decided to move Russian troops to Germany to provide support to the Tsar, whose army was fighting the French on the Rhine.

June 8, 1735 P.P. Lassi with a 20,000-strong corps moved from Poland through Silesia and Bohemia to Bavaria and arrived in Nuremberg on July 30 (the Austrians took upon themselves to provide support for the Russians). “Until now, the campaign was carried out safely,” reported Lassi from Nuremberg with irony, “the soldiers did not need food, and no complaints came from anyone against the army. In these parts they are very surprised that a large army is kept in such good order; Many people come from distant places to see our army...”

In September the army arrived on the Rhine. Never before have Russian eagles flown so far to the west, but they never had to measure their strength with an equal enemy in this war. The French had already concluded a truce, and soon signed peace.

In November, Lassi's corps moved back to Russia - a new big war was beginning in the steppes of Ukraine...

hung a bag, which is considered the predecessor of a soldier's backpack. Officers and non-commissioned officers wore red uniforms with white cuffs.

War of the Polish Succession. 1733-1735

This war began after the death of Augustus II of Saxony. The occasion was the election of a king to the Polish throne. Russia and Austria supported the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus. France nominated Stanislav Leszczynski. According to the peace treaty concluded in 1738, Augustus became king of Poland, and Stanislav received control of the province of Lorraine.

57. SAXONY-POLAND. Dress uniform of a cuirassier, officer. 1734

After the unification of Poland and Saxony, the appearance of the military uniform was influenced by the traditions of both states. Therefore, in some cases it is difficult to separate the details of a military suit by their origin. An example of this is the costume of a cuirassier, which, according to various sources, is considered either Polish or Saxon. Nevertheless, the cuirassier's uniform shows a strong Polish influence. The cuirass and helmet with a visor are reminiscent of the equipment of the Polish noble cavalry. The sling is also worn in the Polish style - a knot with fringe on the right side. On the breastplate of the cuirass there is a shield with the image of the coat of arms of Saxony-Poland.

58. SAXONY-POLAND. Foot Guards, Piper. 1732

The Polish Guard was one of the few military units that had bagpiper musicians. Frock coats

the guards were red, and the cuffs and camisoles were blue. The guard's pipers wore the colors of the Saxon dynasty. Goat's head bagpipes exist in some Eastern European countries today.

59. SAXONY-POLAND. Musketeer Guard, officer. 1735

This guards unit did not participate in military campaigns, but only guarded royalty and the royal residence. Depending on their rank, officers wore elegant uniforms with silver embroidered braid and aiguettes on the shoulders. The senior officer shown in the picture has a wide sword belt. The sword was used for its main purpose, despite excessive decoration.

60. RUSSIA. Infantry regiment, grenadier.

After the introduction of a uniform uniform in the Russian army in 1720, all infantry regiments had uniforms with red cuffs and camisoles of the same color. A national feature of the Russian army of that time were also the images on the forehead of the grenadier cap and the metal plaque of the cartridge pouch of the coat of arms and the name of the city whose name the regiment bore. Unlike the Western European style grenadier cap, Russian grenadiers had front and rear flaps significantly lower than the cap.

War of the Austrian Succession. 1740-1748

The war for the succession to the Austrian throne broke out between Austria, Great Britain, the Netherlands and Russia on the one hand and Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain and Sweden on the other. In addition, some German and Italian states participated in it on both sides. After the death of Emperor Charles VI in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa became the legal heir to the Austrian throne. However, the Bavarian Elector Karl Albrecht also put forward claims to the throne. The most significant battles of this war were the battles of Mollwitz (1741), Dettingen (1743) and Hohenfriedberg (1745). The war began with the capture of Silesia by Frederick II of Prussia in 1740. In 1742, after Silesia fell to Prussia, Prussia and Austria made peace. But in 1744, Prussia again began hostilities. According to the peace treaty of 1748, the warring states recognized the right to inherit the Austrian throne by Maria Theresa, but almost all of Silesia went to Prussia.

61. AUSTRIA. Emmanuel of Portugal's Cuirassier Regiment, officer. 1740

By 1740, a uniform military uniform had not yet been introduced into the Austrian army. The commanders of military units had a great influence on the choice of uniform. For example, on saddle pads and ingots, instead of the imperial eagle, the personal coat of arms of the unit commander was often depicted.

Initially, cuirassiers wore leather jackets, but they were soon replaced by cloth uniforms. Cuffs and camisoles were red, blue or green. However, over time, red became the dominant color. And then the red buttons became the distinctive signs of the regiments’ uniforms.

yellow, yellow or white, and then jackets and trousers began to be painted in the corresponding colors. The cuirass consisted only of a breastplate, the lining and straps of which were made of leather. The Austrian, or rather imperial, scarf was woven from colors corresponding to the colors of the imperial coat of arms - yellow and black. With the accession of Karl Albrecht of Bavaria to the throne of the German Empire in 1742, the color of the scarf was changed to green and gold (or silver). However, in 1745, after the restoration of the House of Habsburg, the scarf was returned to its original colors - black and yellow.

62. AUSTRIA. Hussar Regiment "Nadashdi", private. 1743

Beginning in 1526, after the annexation of the Hungarian crown to the House of Habsburg, Hungarian soldiers began to serve in the imperial army. The most famous among them were the cavalrymen. This hussar regiment, formed in 1688, is the oldest Hungarian unit in the Austrian army. The soldiers were dressed in national Hungarian costumes. Lacing on dolmans is especially characteristic. The Hungarians did not use loops: dolmans, like all outerwear, were fastened with cords and short sticks that replaced buttons. Motifs of national clothing are also visible in tight-fitting chikchirs, short boots and fur trim. It should be noted that clothing trimmed with astrakhan fur and draped over the shoulder began to be called “Hungarian”, and the hussar jacket - “doloman”. Until 1757, commanders of military units had complete freedom in choosing the colors of their uniforms. The creation of hussar units in other armies was based on the legendary dexterity of the Hungarian hussars and the terror they inflicted on the enemy during battle. Initially, such military units were replenished by immigrants from Hungary, and later by the indigenous population.

63. AUSTRIA. Hungarian Infantry Regiment "Kökenesdi", private. 1742

The regiment was founded in 1734. The Hungarian infantry, like the hussar units, was dressed according to national traditions. A decree of 1735 ordered infantrymen to wear a blue “attila” (dolman), bright red chikchirs and a black felt hat. But the commanders of military units modified the uniform to their taste. The hairstyle of the Hungarian infantrymen and hussars was unusual: the hair was tied back in a ponytail and two braids were braided at the temples. Long waxed mustaches hung or curled upward (91, 92).

64. AUSTRIA. Infantry regiment "Vazquez de Binas", drummer of the grenadier company. 1740

The regiment was formed in 1721 from residents of Lombardy. Despite all the official instructions to wear a uniform of gray cloth, almost the entire Austrian army had a white uniform. Some regiments had clothes with cuffs, camisoles were fastened with one row of buttons, and in others, as shown in the figure, with two. The grenadier miter is similar to the later introduced bearskin cap. From it hangs a shawl in regimental colors. The stocking covers (legs) were converted into gaiters, fastened with buttons on the outside. Black gaiters were worn every day, and white ones only in the summer in peacetime and on parade. In most regiments, drummers wore uniforms richly decorated with braid. A decree of 1755 ordered musicians to have only one distinctive sign of their occupation - “wings” in the form of inverted swallow’s nests on the shoulders of their uniforms.

65. PRUSSIA. Infantry Regiment "Prince Moritz Anhalt) Dessau", grenadier. 1741

The regiment was formed in 1713. The Prussian army increased significantly during the reign of Frederick William I,

nicknamed the King-Corporal. Due to savings, which often went to the extreme, military clothing was made narrow and short. The lapels have disappeared, but not in all regiments. The jackets were mostly white or light yellow. Camping equipment was supplemented by a leather backpack and a flask. The decoration of the frontal part of the miter was made of metal, through the through holes of which the backdrop was visible. The miter became stiff, the metal decorations were polished to a shine, as were the buttons on the uniform. Grenadier officers of the Prussian army wore a cocked hat, like officers of the grenadier units of other countries, but had not a gun, but a half-pike.

66. PRUSSIA. Artillery, bombardier.

The Prussian artillery uniform was blue, with red lining. The appearance of a special miter for bombardiers with brass decorations, made of black waxed cloth, dates back to 1731. Cleaning needles (dressing needles), which were previously stored in a scabbard (33), were now tied to a container for gunpowder. Gold embroidered braid on the cuff tongues indicated the rank of bombardier. According to general custom, the hair was powdered. Soldiers did this only during military reviews and guard duty in peacetime. Officers were required to always either powder their hair or wear a white wig.

67. FRANCE. Royal Comte Regiment, Fusilier. 1740

This military unit, formed in 1674 during the conquest of the province of Franche-Comté, was considered a royal regiment and therefore wore a uniform with blue cuffs. The decree of 1736 finally approved the uniform of the French infantry. Compared to the Prussian uniform, the caftan and camisole became looser. The number of buttons on the cuffs and pocket flaps was precisely prescribed. During the hike, the equipment was carried on the back in a backpack

or a canvas bag. Thus, the French infantry, unlike the Prussian ones, found it more convenient to move.

68. FRANCE. Regiment "Boffremont", dragoons.

Since the commander of this cavalry regiment, formed in 1673 in the province of Franche-Comté, was not of royal blood, the regiment's uniform was red. The colors of hats, camisoles and cuffs served as distinctive signs. The aiguillettes were abolished and replaced with fringed epaulettes, which prevented the sling with the cartridge pouch from slipping. Basically, dragoons wore clothes with the hems turned up. The same custom spread to the infantry.

69. BAVARIA. Guards Regiment, Grenadier. 1740

At first the grenadier's cap had no decorations, but in 1740 it was decorated with a nickel silver plaque. In most armies, grenadiers enjoyed the privilege of wearing a mustache, while others, following the fashion of the time, had to shave. In some military units, this privilege was even interpreted as a duty: if a grenadier’s mustache was not thick enough by nature, then he was obliged to wear a false mustache during service. For parades, fair-haired grenadiers were forced to paint their mustaches black and curl their ends up.

70. PFALIZ. Carabinieri Regiment "Count Hatzfeld", officer. 1748

The army of the Electorate of the Palatinate, before its annexation to Bavaria in 1777, had a Bavarian uniform. The cavalry of both armies wore white uniforms with regimental cuffs. A characteristic feature of the headdress was a blue or white bow. In the majority

In armies, such a cockade was black, but could also have the colors of the heraldry of the ruling house, as shown in the figure.

71. SAXONY. Queen's Regiment of Foot, Drummer. 1745

In 1734, the white color of the Saxon army uniform was replaced by red. Cuffs were abolished in 1742, and therefore the regiments differed only in the color of the cuffs and lower clothing. The unusual button arrangement appears to be of Polish origin and is found only in the Foot Guards and the Queen's Regiment. In other military units, buttons on uniforms were located at regular intervals. The drummers' uniform featured yellow braid and "swallow's nest" winglets on the shoulders.

72. SAXONY. Artillery, gunner.

From 1717 to 1914, the Saxon artillery had green uniforms with red collars and cuffs and leather buttons. In bad weather, artillerymen could button up their uniform lapels. In this case, the waist belt and bladed weapons were worn over the frock coat. Artillery lost its specific feature as a guild (13), but handling such weapons still required serious training. In addition to the ability to handle an artillery gun, a well-trained artilleryman had to be able to make pyrotechnic charges in the form of signal flares, both in wartime and in peacetime, for fireworks displays.

73. RUSSIA. Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, officer) grenadier. 1740

The Preobrazhensky regiment, formed by Peter the Great in 1690 and received the rank of guards in 1700, was one of the most famous in the Russian army (399). The uniform of the grenadier officer shown in the figure was introduced in 1733. The headdress of the usual form is a leather grenadier cap with a forehead and a nape. Since 1720, officers' plumes were white. A distinctive feature of the uniform of the Preobrazhensky Regiment was the red collar. The officer's honorary weapon was the espanton (a type of protazan).

74. SPAIN. Savoy Infantry Regiment, standard bearer. 1748

Since 1710, the Spanish infantry wore light gray caftans, and later white, with cuffs and camisoles in regimental colors. The pants were white and the stockings were red. In 1730, white gaiters were introduced. From that moment on, caftans began to be worn unbuttoned and with the hems turned up.

75. SARDINIA. Infantry Regiment, Fusilier.

The Sardinian infantry wore light gray uniforms. The regiments differed in the color of the cuffs and collars, and the camisoles were the same color as the cuffs or light yellow. Grenadiers wore bearskin hats. The ammunition included a saber and a cartridge pouch.

76. NAPLES. General 1740

The army of the Kingdom of Naples wore French uniforms. Uniforms for generals were introduced in many armies in the mid-18th century. Before that the generals

73. Russia. Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, grenadier officer. 1740

74. Spain. Savoy Infantry Regiment, standard bearer. 174875. Sardinia. Infantry Regiment, Fusilier. 174476. Naples. General 1740

usually wore the uniform of the regiment they commanded. Sometimes their uniforms had some distinctive features, such as a plume on their hat. Royalty until the mid-18th century. They wore uniforms only in war or during inspection. The exceptions were the Swedish king Charles XII and the Prussian king Frederick William I: they wore military uniforms all the time. The general shown in the picture was awarded the Order of Constantine.

77. HANOVER. Horse grenadier. 1742

The squadron of mounted grenadiers, founded in 1742, was part of the Hanoverian Horse Guards. The squadron had red uniforms with black trim. A distinctive feature of the grenadier uniform was aiguillettes. Since from 1714 the Hanoverian electors were English kings, the upper part of the forehead of the grenadier cap was decorated with the coat of arms of Great Britain, and the lower part with the image of a galloping horse, which is a symbol of Lower Saxony. The red cloth cover of the cartridge pouch is decorated with a copper plaque with a royal monogram.

78. GREAT BRITAIN. 3rd Infantry Regiment, Fusilier. 1742

The cuffs of the uniform are the color of buffalo leather, hence the nickname The buffs (bulls), which later became the official name of the regiment. The British uniform was finally established in the 1740s. Decorative braid, the wearing of which was considered the exclusive right of the grenadiers, became the insignia of the regiments. By decree of 1743, red uniforms were introduced into the British army, but at first only the lapels were red. A characteristic feature were wide leather belts. An awl and a brush for cleaning the gun were attached on two cords to the upper part of the sling that held the cartridge pouch.

77. Hanover. Horse grenadier. 1742 78. Great Britain. 3rd Infantry Regiment, Fusilier. 174279. Schwarzburg. Infantry Regiment "Von Diepenbroeck", officer. 174080. Netherlands. Guards infantry, sapper. 1750

Plan
Introduction
1 Previous events
2 Progress of the war
2.1 Polish theater of operations
2.2 Siege of Danzig
2.3 Italian theater of operations
2.4 Southern Italy
2.5 German theater of operations

3 Truce
4 Results of the war
5 Sources

War of the Polish Succession

Introduction

The War of the Polish Succession was a war fought in 1733-1735 by coalitions of Russia, the Austrian Empire and Saxony on one side and France, Spain and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other.

1. Previous events

In 1733, the Polish king Augustus II died. France nominated as his successor the father-in-law of the French king Louis XV, Stanislav Leszczynski, whose confirmation would be a significant political victory for France and could undermine Russian influence in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In addition, this could lead to the creation of an anti-Russian bloc of states (Poland, Sweden, Ottoman Empire) under the leadership of France.

Russia and Austria supported the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus. Both sides immediately began to actively use money.

On April 27, 1733, a convocation Diet opened, preceding the electoral one, at which it was decided that only a natural Pole and Catholic, who did not have his own army or hereditary power and was married to a Catholic, could be elected king. This decision directly excluded both the Saxon Elector and any other foreign prince from the list of candidates for the throne. However, when it was necessary to sign these articles, some of the electors refused to do so, after which they turned to the Russian court with a request for help.

On August 14, 1733, the Russian ambassador Levenwolde concluded an agreement in Warsaw with the Saxon commissioners, according to which Russia and Saxony entered into a defensive alliance for 18 years, guaranteeing each other all their European possessions and fielding auxiliary troops: Russia - 2 thousand cavalry and 4 thousand infantry, Saxony - 1 thousand infantry and 2 thousand cavalry; the elector recognized the imperial title for the Russian empress, and upon achieving the Polish crown he had to try to ensure that the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did the same; both sides invited Prussia, England and Denmark to an alliance; the elector pledged to use all his strength to ensure that Poland renounces its claims to Livonia; the empress promised to assist the elector in his intentions regarding Poland with negotiations, money, and, if necessary, troops.

The electoral session began on August 25. His work was marked by quarrels. Already on August 29, the Lithuanian regimentar, Prince Vishnewiecki, moved with his followers in the amount of 3 thousand people to the right bank of the Vistula in Prague, followed by the Krakow governor, Prince Lubomirski.

On September 11, when the primate was supposed to collect votes, the lords standing on the right bank of the Vistula sent a protest against Stanislav’s candidacy, but the primate announced that only the protest that was expressed on the election field was considered legal. According to Stanislav’s opponents, when collecting votes, the primate acted in bad faith, quickly passing by suspicious banners, and his retinue, at the sound of trumpets and horns, shouted: “Long live Stanislav!” However, by the evening the majority clearly spoke out in favor of Leshchinsky, while the minority left for Prague at night.

On September 12, 1733, the primate announced the election of Stanislav Leszczynski as Polish king. Meanwhile, the minority, having published a manifesto in which they complained about the destruction of the liberum veto, retreated to the Hungarians. On September 22, Leszczynski, accompanied by his main supporters, as well as the French and Swedish ambassadors, left for Danzig, where he intended to wait for French help.

2. Progress of the war

2.1. Polish theater of operations

Russian troops under the command of P.P. Lassi crossed the border on July 31 and appeared near Warsaw on September 20.

On September 24, part of the gentry, half a mile from Prague, in the Grochow tract, elected Frederick Augustus to the throne. Polish troops supporting Leszczynski left Warsaw without resistance and went to Krakow.

2.2. Siege of Danzig

August III

In January 1734, Lassi occupied Thorn, whose inhabitants swore allegiance to Augustus III and accepted the Russian garrison. Lassi was able to bring only 12 thousand soldiers to Danzig, which were not enough to storm the city, since the number of besieged exceeded the forces of the besiegers. In addition to the Poles, there were also French engineers and a number of Swedish officers in the city. In addition, their hopes were supported by the presence in the city of the French and Swedish ambassadors Monty and Rudenskiöld.

On March 5, 1734, Field Marshal Minich arrived in Danzig, replacing Lassi. On March 9, Russian troops managed to capture the outskirts of Scotland. On April 18, shelling of the city began from the guns that had finally arrived.

Stanislav Leshchinsky

At the same time, the French squadron arrived, but the French landing force did not find the opportunity to enter the city, since Minich, by taking Fort Sommerschanz, cut off Danzig’s communication with its harbor of Weichselmünde, so the French again boarded ships and went to sea.

In the last days of April, Minich decided to storm Fort Gagelsberg. The assault, however, ended in failure. The losses of the besiegers amounted to 2 thousand people killed and wounded.

On May 13, 11 French ships again appeared in the roadstead and landed a landing party consisting of 2 thousand people. On May 16, he attacked the Russian retrenchments, and at the same time the besieged made a sortie out of the city. Both of them were repulsed.

Soon Saxon troops approached Danzig. In addition, at the beginning of June, the Russian fleet with artillery arrived, as a result of which the French squadron, leaving the army in Weichselmünde, left, having lost one frigate, which ran aground. Minich, having received artillery, began making advances towards Weichselmünde, and on June 12 the French surrendered it. The next day the Münde fortification surrendered. On June 28, 1734, Danzig also surrendered. Leshchinsky, dressed in a peasant dress, fled. After this, most of the Polish magnates went over to the side of Augustus III.

2.3. Italian theater of operations

Although Austrian troops did not take part in the hostilities in Poland, Austrian participation was so obvious that it provided France and Spain with a plausible pretext for declaring war on Emperor Charles VI. The real reason for Spain's entry into the war was its desire to increase its possessions by granting one of the Italian states to the Infante Don Carlos.

Cardinal Fleury also attracted Sardinia to his side, promising her Milan.

The Sardinian king Charles Emmanuel, appointed commander-in-chief of the allied armies in Italy, occupied Milan in October 1733 and besieged Mantua. Having crossed the Alps, the French also entered Italy. Taking advantage of the suspension of hostilities in the winter, Charles VI hastily prepared for war, forming an army in Italy.

Hostilities began in February 1734. At first, the imperial army was commanded by Field Marshal F. C. von Mercy. He crossed the Po River and pushed the enemy back to Padua.

On June 29, he attacked the Franco-Sardinian army of Marshal Coigny near Parma. Despite the victory, the Austrians, having lost their commander, retreated across the Secchia River, where the new commander-in-chief, Count Koenigsek, arrived.

On September 15, 1734, unexpectedly attacking the Allied camp near Quistello, he won a victory, but on September 19 he was defeated at Guastalla, losing about 6 thousand people.

2.4. Southern Italy

In southern Italy during this time, the actions of the Austrians were even less successful. Don Carlos, having ascended the throne of the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza at the beginning of 1734 and wishing to exchange them for Naples, concentrated a strong Spanish army in Tuscany, which, passing through the Papal States, invaded Naples, while the Spanish fleet blocked Civitta Vecchia .

The Austrian forces scattered throughout the fortresses of the Kingdom of Naples could not resist the enemy, so the Austrians concentrated 6 thousand people in a fortified position at San Angelo de la Canina. The Spaniards took possession of the Sant'Angelo position, besieged Gaeta and Capua and approached Naples, which opened the gates to them on April 10, 1734.

On May 10, 1734, Don Carlos was proclaimed King of Naples under the name Charles III. The remnants of the Austrian troops (9 thousand people) concentrated near Bitonto, but on May 27 they were defeated by the Duke of Montemar. Gaeta soon fell.

By December 1734, the Kingdom of Naples was cleared of Austrian troops. Following this, Montemar crossed to Sicily and occupied Palermo, and on June 3, Charles III was crowned King of the Two Sicilies.

2.5. German theater of war

According to the definition of the Imperial Reichstag, the principalities allied with Austria were supposed to field an army of one hundred and twenty thousand, but due to lack of money they were able to field only 12 thousand people.

The French army of Marshal Berwick began the campaign on April 9, 1734 by taking Traben-Trarbach, then crossed the Rhine and, bypassing the Ettlingen lines, forced the Austrian army to retreat to Heilbronn, where it was led by Eugene of Savoy. The army has already increased to 26 thousand people. The elderly Prince Eugene considered it best to limit himself to passive defense. He continued to maintain this course of action, despite the fact that the army gradually reached 60 thousand people.

Evgeniy Savoysky
Artist Jacob van Schuppen

The French besieged Philippsburg and, despite the stubborn resistance of the Austrians and the death of Berwick, managed to capture it.

3. Truce

After Austria lost hope of winning England over to its side, the emperor concluded a truce with France on November 3, 1734, and on May 7, 1735 signed preliminary conditions: Leszczynski was granted the title of Polish king and the possession of all the estates that belonged to him in Poland, Charles III recognized king of the Two Sicilies, Sardinia received Tortona, Novara and Vigevano, all other Austrian possessions were returned to Austria; The pragmatic sanction was recognized by all Bourbon courts; the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were given to the emperor, who was assured of future possession of Tuscany.

War of the Polish Succession- a war that took place in 1733-1735 by coalitions of Russia, Austria and Saxony on one side and France, Spain and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other.

The reason was the election of a king to the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II (). France supported the candidacy of Stanislav Leszczynski, the father-in-law of Louis XV, who had previously occupied the Polish throne during the Northern War, Russia and Austria - the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus II, the son of the late king. The anti-French coalition won.

The weakness of the central government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the omnipotence of the aristocracy and the arbitrariness of the petty gentry made this state a restless neighbor. First of all, this affected Russian-Polish relations. Robber detachments of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry attacked border villages, carried away peasants and stole livestock, burned fields and houses. Polish magnates, in violation of the Eternal Peace of 1686, pursued a policy of settling lands recognized by the treaty as a neutral barrier. Thus, the elder Yablonovsky restored Chigirin, who had been devastated by the Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, captured several farms in the lands of the Mirgorod and Pereyaslavsky regiments, built 14,203 courtyards on neutral lands, set up outposts on the roads and collected duties from Russian subjects. The government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth laid claim to Livonia and tried to limit the autonomy of the Duchy of Courland. The Polish Catholic majority persecuted Orthodox Christians in Grodno and Minsk.

For the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish question was primarily associated with the problem of the unity of the Empire. In 1697, the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus I was elected to the Polish throne. The Elector's heirs from his son's marriage to Archduchess Maria Josepha could claim part of the heritage of the House of Austria. In Silesia, the Polish gentry, just as in Russia, raided border settlements. Polish-Austrian relations were also complicated by the persecution of “dissidents,” especially Lutherans. The emperor was the guarantor of the rights of religious minorities in the empire, and outbursts of Catholic fanaticism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the activity of the Jesuits in Silesia and Hungary, where there were also many Lutherans. In addition, this caused demarches on the part of the Protestant princes of the Empire, who were supported by England and Sweden.

The second half of the 20s in Europe was marked by an acute confrontation between two blocs of powers - the Hanoverian and Vienna Unions. In 1726, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance, and the question of the policy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was supplemented by new circumstances. Now the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth divided the lands of the two allied powers and in case of war had to let the allied troops through. The presence in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of a government friendly to Austria and Russia has become even more necessary.

The Allies' position was twofold. For Russia, the issue was resolving border disputes, guaranteeing freedom of religion for the Orthodox population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, suppressing banditry, and preserving the autonomy and territorial integrity of Courland. On the one hand, the solution to these issues required the creation of a strong royal power in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which could curb the willfulness of the gentry and magnates. On the other hand, Russia was not interested in strengthening the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Preservation "Liberties and the Constitution of the Republic", who created noble anarchy in the country, was a reliable guarantor against the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Both Russia and Austria were opponents of the idea of ​​​​forming a Polish-Saxon kingdom, which Augustus II strove for. The Allies also opposed the creation of a union of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Turkey, France and Sweden. Russia sought from the Polish government compliance with the obligations on freedom of religion for the Orthodox, taken by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the treaty of 1689, and the recognition of Russia's right to represent the interests of the Orthodox before the Polish government. On the issue of freedom of religion, Russia spoke together with England, Sweden and Holland, which provided support to their Protestant co-religionists.

Solving these problems required developing a common position. In 1727, Austria initiated discussions on the succession to the Polish throne after the death of King Augustus II. According to the rescript of Emperor Charles VI, such an initiative was caused by the need to ensure the passage of Allied auxiliary corps through the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the event of war with the Hanoverian bloc. On February 1 (12), 1727, at the conference of the Supreme Privy Council, the Imperial Minister in Russia, Count Ignaz Amadeus Bussy-Rabutin, reported the opinion of Emperor Charles: the emperor is against the nomination of the Saxon crown prince Friedrich-August or Stanislav Leszczynski as candidates for the Polish throne and supports the nomination of a candidate from the Polish nobility , “natural Piasts”, who are not influenced by other powers, especially France; the emperor supports the fight against Moritz of Saxony in Courland (Count Moritz tried to become duke). On February 9 (20), Empress Catherine I gave the answer - in choosing a candidate she relies on the emperor.

In 1728, Augustus II tried to make a rapprochement with Vienna, where Field Marshal Fleming was sent, but the field marshal died before negotiations began. On October 2 (13), Augustus II concluded the Pact of Versailles: in the event of a war between Louis XV and Emperor Charles, King Augustus promised to remain neutral and not let Russian troops through, in response, France provided the king with the payment of subsidies. On November 15 (26), the Russian minister in Vienna, Louis Lanchinsky, met with the President of the Hofkriegsrat, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The prince confirmed that the Viennese court wanted free elections for the king, would support a Piast candidate friendly to Russia and Austria, and would not allow the election of Leszczynski. The next intensification of negotiations occurred in 1730, which was associated with the escalation of the confrontation between the European blocs. In July-August 1730, the Russian court informed Vienna that negotiations were underway with the French in Warsaw and Dresden. On July 11 (22), Lanchinsky reported to St. Petersburg about a meeting with Prince Eugene: “When I announced to him that news of the secret Saxon negotiation with France was continuing, I skillfully took the handkerchief out of my pocket, tied a knot and said briefly: “I remember.” .

On November 7 (18), 1730, the imperial ambassador Count Franz-Karl von Wratislav informed Vice-Chancellor Andrei Osterman of the decree of Emperor Charles on the Polish issue. The Emperor proposed concluding an agreement between Prussia, Russia and Austria on the following terms:

1. Ensuring the freedom of election of the king and the exclusion of Leshchinsky;
2. Drawing up a special agreement on the candidacy of an applicant from Saxony;
3. Nominate a common candidate from the Piasts;
4. Foreign princes should be invited only if this does not contribute to the election of Leshchinsky.

On December 14 (25), Wratislav presented a draft agreement that provided for a guarantee of a Polish “republic”, the formation of a Prussian-Russian-Austrian Council for Polish Affairs and the nomination of a candidate who “kept all Polish freedoms and would live in peace with all border countries”. On January 2 (13), 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna approved this project.

In 1730-1731 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the Sejm in Grodno, the issue of eliminating the autonomy of Courland and dividing the duchy into voivodeships and povets was considered, which contradicted international agreements, since many European powers acted as guarantors of the duchy’s autonomy. In 1731, Polish-Lithuanian raids on the borders and persecution of Orthodox Christians intensified. These events pushed Russia to take active action. Lieutenant General Count Karl Löwenwolde and Adjutant General of the Empress Count Ernst Biron went to Berlin, who were supposed to coordinate actions on the Polish issue with King Frederick William I. In August 1731, Löwenwolde traveled to Vienna as envoy extraordinary.

For Emperor Charles VI, 1731 also became a turbulent year. On December 7 (18), 1731, the Reichstag in Regensburg guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, but the Electors of Bavaria, the Palatinate and Saxony, who could claim part of the “Austrian inheritance,” abstained. The next demarche of Augustus II forced the Viennese court to act decisively. On February 6 (17), 1732, Count Vratislav presented to Empress Anna Ioannovna the emperor’s response to the promemory of the extraordinary envoy in Vienna, Count Levenwolde. The Emperor ordered the imperial ambassador in Warsaw, Count Wilczek, together with the Russian envoy, Count Friedrich Levenwolde “all convenient and strong harassment, where appropriate, should be used” to protect Orthodox "dissidents" and the Russian population on the Polish border. If this is not enough, the emperor is ready to support Russia by force of arms, considering the situation a case of aggression, “when one or the other party in the late possession of their lands under the mentioned allied treaty is concerned”. On July 13 (24), Emperor Charles arrived incognito in Prague, where he secretly met with King Frederick William in the house of Count Nostitz. The monarchs agreed to act jointly in the election of a new Polish king.

The Polish question could not leave France aside. Since the conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna in 1726, France has pursued a policy of “eastern barrier” towards Russia. The goal of this policy was to create a hostile environment around Russia from Sweden, Turkey and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. France helped Sweden rebuild its army and tried to establish allied relations between Turkey, Poland and Sweden, directed against Russia. The goal of the “eastern barrier” policy was to weaken Russia and divert its attention from the problems of Middle and Central Europe, which was supposed to ensure Russia’s non-interference in Austro-French relations.

In 1728, at the Congress of Soissons, Cardinal de Fleury, due to the illness of King Augustus II, proposed that the Swedes negotiate with England and Holland to support the candidacy of Stanislav Leszczynski as the new king. Sweden supported the French proposal and agreed to provide financial support. In addition, Sweden announced its readiness to provide Leshchinsky with armed support. On July 25, 1729, Sweden made peace with Saxony, and on October 7, 1732, peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These treaties legally ended the Northern War. Both agreements were concluded without the participation of Russian intermediaries, which Russia insisted on, and gave French and Swedish diplomacy the opportunity to strengthen Leszczynski's position in Poland.

On December 2 (13), 1732 in Berlin, the Russian ambassador Count Levenwolde and the imperial ambassador Count Seckendorf concluded an agreement with King Frederick William on joint actions in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which became known as the “Union of Three Black Eagles”. According to the agreement, to counter Leshchinsky, it was decided to deploy troops on the borders: 4,000 cavalry from Austria, 6,000 dragoons and 14,000 infantry from Russia, and 12 battalions and 20 squadrons from Prussia. The parties allocated 36,000 chervonnies (about 90,000 rubles) to bribe the tycoons. The Portuguese infante Manuel was announced as the general candidate for the election of the king, and Prince Augustus Wilhelm of Prussia was announced as the candidate in Courland. The Duke of Courland was not supposed to have possessions outside Courland and remained a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Löwenwolde mission reached a dead end when the emperor refused to commit the agreements to paper.

Death of King Augustus II

The balance of power in Europe was not in favor of King Augustus II, and most of the Polish magnates were opposed to him. The last step of Augustus the Strong was to propose a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between him and Prussia. Augustus offered Frederick William Polish Prussia, Courland and part of Greater Poland, the remaining lands became a hereditary kingdom. On December 31, 1732 (January 11, 1733) in Krosno, the king met with the Prussian minister von Grumbkow, but the negotiations were interrupted due to the worsening of the king’s illness. After 4 days in Warsaw, the king fell ill, on January 18 (29), he developed a fever, and on the morning of January 21 (February 1), 1733, the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland Augustus the Strong died.

The death of the king became a signal to action for the European powers. As the Russian envoy in Vienna, Louis Lanchinsky, reported to Empress Anna: “After the release of my last report, No. 6, a courier from the Tsar’s ambassador, Count Wilczek, arrived here from Warsaw, and on the third day at the end of the 9th hour in the morning, with information about the death of the King of Poland, and at that hour His Tsar’s Majesty called to himself the chief ministers with whom I deigned to speak about that occasion. And yesterday Prince Eugene had a conference, in which, as I was informed from here, they decided to send a courier with a dispatch to the court of Your Imperial Majesty and to Berlin so that all three courts would try to excommunicate Stanislav Leszczynski from the Polish throne, let all three powers be made kings, for the sake of which a certain amount of money is determined here to incline the Polish nobles.” .

In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, executive power passed into the hands of the primate, Archbishop of Gniezno Count Feodor Potocki. With his first decrees, the primate expelled 1,200 Saxons from the country, disbanded two regiments of the Horse Guards and accepted Augustus II's favorite regiment, the Grand Musketeers, into Polish service. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw, Count Friedrich Levenwolde, found out in conversations with the primate that he was a strong supporter of Leszczynski. For Russia, the support of Leshchinsky by the Potocki family did not bode well, since the Potocki family controlled the voivodeships bordering Russia. Headman of Warsaw, Count Jozef Potocki was the voivode of Kyiv, Anthony Potocki was the voivode of Bielski. The Potocki's relatives were the Russian voivode Augustus Czartoryski, the headman of Chigirin Yablonovsky, the treasurer of the great crown Count Franciszek Ossoliński, the crown regimentar Count Stanislav Poniatowski.

The support for Russia and Austria was the Lithuanian nobility, opposed to Leszczynski - the regimental Lithuanian prince Mikhail Vishnevetsky, Prince Mikhail-Kazimir Radziwill. The governor of Krakow, Prince Fyodor Lubomirski, and the castellan of Krakow, Prince Jan Wisniewiecki, were pro-Austrian. By February 12 (23), 1733, they organized a confederation in Krakow and captured the salt mines, but without receiving military assistance from Austria, the confederates soon submitted to the primate.

The Austrian forces scattered throughout the fortresses of the Kingdom of Naples could not resist the enemy, so the Austrians concentrated 6 thousand people in a fortified position at San Angelo de la Canina. The Spaniards took possession of the Sant'Angelo position, besieged Gaeta and Capua and approached Naples, which opened the gates to them on April 10, 1734.

On May 10, 1734, Don Carlos was proclaimed King of Naples under the name Charles III. The remnants of the Austrian troops (9 thousand people) concentrated near Bitonto, but on May 25 they were defeated by the Duke of Montemar: more than half fell in battle, and the rest, after holding out for a short time in Bitonto and Bari, were forced to lay down their arms. Gaeta soon fell and only Count Thrawn held out in Capua until the end of November.

By December 1734, the Kingdom of Naples was cleared of Austrian troops. Following this, Montemar, who received the title of Duke of Biton for his victories, crossed to Sicily and occupied Palermo, and on June 3, 1735, Charles III was crowned King of the Two Sicilies.

German theater of war

According to the definition of the Imperial Reichstag, the principalities allied with Austria were supposed to field an army of one hundred and twenty thousand, but due to lack of money, the commander-in-chief, the Duke of Bevern, took under his command only 12 thousand people. Of course, with such an army he could not even think about offensive actions.

The French army of Marshal Berwick began the campaign on April 9, 1734 with the capture of Trarbach, then crossed the Rhine and, bypassing the Ettlingen lines, forced the Austrian army to retreat to Heilbronn, where the Duke of Bevern was replaced by Eugene of Savoy, who had arrived from Vienna. The army had already grown to 26 thousand people, but consisted of different nationalities that disagreed with each other in many respects. The elderly Prince Eugene, embarrassed by the distrust of the Viennese court, considered it best to limit himself to passive defense. He continued to maintain this course of action, despite the fact that the army gradually reached 60 thousand people.

The French laid siege to Philippsburg, which was stubbornly defended under the brave commandant, Baron Wutgenau. During this siege Berwick was killed, but his successor, the Marquis d'Asfeld, ended the siege.

Prince Eugene strongly hoped for an alliance with the maritime powers and, using his previous connections with the English court, tried to involve England in the fight against France. Despite King George II's expressed readiness and threats to Austria, in case of disagreement, to marry Crown Princess Maria Theresa to the heir to the Spanish throne, the British government, led by Walpole, refused the alliance.

Truce

After Austria lost hope of winning England over to its side, the emperor concluded a truce with France on November 3, 1734, and on May 7, 1735 signed preliminary conditions: Leszczynski was given the title of Polish king and the possession of all the estates that belonged to him in Poland, Charles III recognized king of the Two Sicilies, Sardinia received Tortona, Novara and Vigevano, all other Austrian possessions were returned to Austria; The pragmatic sanction was recognized by all Bourbon courts; the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were given to the emperor, who was assured of future possession of Tuscany.

However, the agreement between the powers that made peace did not last long. France was unhappy that she received nothing for all her donations; Spain did not concede Parma and Piacenza and, on the occasion of insulting its envoy in Lisbon, declared war on Portugal, asking for help from England and Austria. England began to arm itself. Sardinia entered into negotiations with Austria.

Under these conditions, Austria demanded auxiliary troops from Russia, and the Russian government decided to send the 13,000-strong Lassi Corps to help it. On June 8, 1735, Lassi set out from Poland to Silesia; on August 15, the Russian army united with the imperial one and positioned itself between

; in exchange, France recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, according to which his daughter Maria Theresa was recognized as the successor of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in hereditary possessions, and her husband Francis I Stephen, who abandoned his native Lorraine in favor of Stanislaus, was to become emperor.

By the 20s of the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth found itself excluded from big European politics, but remained an important factor in the politics of Eastern Europe. The geographical position of the country, bordering the possessions of Turkey, Russia, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire, gave weight to the position taken by the rulers of the state in international matters.

The weakness of the central government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the omnipotence of the aristocracy and the arbitrariness of the petty gentry made this state a restless neighbor. First of all, this affected Russian-Polish relations. Robber detachments of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry attacked border villages, carried away peasants and stole livestock, burned fields and houses. Polish magnates, in violation of the Perpetual Peace of 1686, pursued a policy of settling lands recognized by the treaty as a neutral barrier. Thus, the elder Yablonovsky restored Chigirin, devastated by the Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, captured several farms in the lands of the Mirgorod and Pereyaslav regiments, built 14,203 courtyards on neutral lands, set up outposts on the roads and collected duties from Russian subjects. The government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth laid claim to Livonia and tried to limit the autonomy of the Duchy of Courland. The Polish Catholic majority persecuted Orthodox Christians in Grodno and Minsk.

For the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish question was primarily associated with the problem of the unity of the Empire. In 1697, the Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus I was elected to the Polish throne. The Elector's heirs from his son's marriage to Archduchess Maria Josepha could claim part of the heritage of the House of Austria. In Silesia, the Polish gentry, just as in Russia, raided border settlements. Polish-Austrian relations were also complicated by the persecution of “dissidents,” especially Lutherans. The emperor was the guarantor of the rights of religious minorities in the empire, and outbursts of Catholic fanaticism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the activity of the Jesuits in Silesia and Hungary, where there were also many Lutherans. In addition, this caused demarches on the part of the Protestant princes of the Empire, who were supported by England and Sweden.

The second half of the 1920s in Europe was marked by an acute confrontation between two blocs of powers - the Hanoverian and Vienna Unions. In 1726, Austria and Russia entered into a defensive alliance, and the question of the policy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was supplemented by new circumstances. Now the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth divided the lands of the two allied powers and in case of war had to let the allied troops through. The presence in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of a government friendly to Austria and Russia has become even more necessary.

The Allies' position was twofold. For Russia, the issue was resolving border disputes, guaranteeing freedom of religion for the Orthodox population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, suppressing banditry, and preserving the autonomy and territorial integrity of Courland. On the one hand, the solution to these issues required the creation of a strong royal power in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which could curb the willfulness of the gentry and magnates. On the other hand, Russia was not interested in strengthening the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Preservation "Liberties and the Constitution of the Republic", who created noble anarchy in the country, was a reliable guarantor against the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Both Russia and Austria were opponents of the idea of ​​​​forming a Polish-Saxon kingdom, which Augustus II strove for. The Allies also opposed the creation of a union of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Turkey, France and Sweden. Russia sought from the Polish government compliance with the obligations on freedom of religion for the Orthodox, taken by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the treaty of 1689, and the recognition of Russia's right to represent the interests of the Orthodox before the Polish government. On the issue of freedom of religion, Russia spoke together with England, Sweden and Holland, which provided support to their Protestant co-religionists.

Solving these problems required developing a common position. In 1727, Austria initiated discussions about the succession to the Polish throne after the death of King Augustus II. According to the rescript of Emperor Charles VI, such an initiative was caused by the need to ensure the passage of Allied auxiliary corps through the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the event of war with the Hanoverian bloc. On February 1 (12), 1727, at the conference of the Supreme Privy Council, the Imperial Minister in Russia, Count Ignaz Amadeus Bussy-Rabutin, reported the opinion of Emperor Charles: the emperor is against the nomination of the Saxon crown prince Friedrich-August or Stanislav Leszczynski as candidates for the Polish throne and supports the nomination of a candidate from the Polish nobility , “natural Piasts”, who are not influenced by other powers, especially France; the emperor supports the fight against Moritz of Saxony in Courland (Count Moritz tried to become duke). On February 9 (20), Empress Catherine I gave the answer - in choosing a candidate she relies on the emperor.

In 1728, Augustus II tried to make a rapprochement with Vienna, where Field Marshal Fleming was sent, but the field marshal died before negotiations began. On October 2 (13), Augustus II concluded the Pact of Versailles: in the event of a war between Louis XV and Emperor Charles, King Augustus promised to remain neutral and not let Russian troops through, in response, France provided the king with the payment of subsidies. On November 15 (26), the Russian minister in Vienna, Ludovic Lanchinsky, met with the President of the Hofkriegsrat, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The prince confirmed that the Viennese court wanted free elections for the king, would support a Piast candidate friendly to Russia and Austria, and would not allow the election of Leszczynski. The next intensification of negotiations occurred in 1730, which was associated with the escalation of the confrontation between the European blocs. In July-August 1730, the Russian court informed Vienna that negotiations were underway with the French in Warsaw and Dresden. On July 11 (22), Lanchinsky reported to St. Petersburg about a meeting with Prince Eugene: .

On November 7 (18), 1730, the imperial ambassador Count Franz-Karl von Wratislav informed Vice-Chancellor Andrei Osterman of the decree of Emperor Charles on the Polish issue. The Emperor proposed concluding an agreement between Prussia, Russia and Austria on the following terms:

On December 14 (25), Wratislav presented a draft agreement that provided for a guarantee of a Polish “republic”, the formation of a Prussian-Russian-Austrian Council for Polish Affairs and the nomination of a candidate who. On January 2 (13), 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna approved this project.

In 1730-1731 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the Sejm in Grodno, the issue of eliminating the autonomy of Courland and dividing the duchy into voivodeships and povets was considered, which contradicted international agreements, since many European powers acted as guarantors of the duchy’s autonomy. In 1731, Polish-Lithuanian raids on the borders and persecution of Orthodox Christians intensified. These events pushed Russia to take active action. Lieutenant General Count Karl Löwenwolde and Adjutant General of the Empress Count Ernst Biron went to Berlin, who were supposed to coordinate actions on the Polish issue with King Frederick William I. In August 1731, Löwenwolde traveled to Vienna as envoy extraordinary.

For Emperor Charles VI, 1731 also became a turbulent year. On December 7 (18), 1731, the Reichstag in Regensburg guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, but the Electors of Bavaria, the Palatinate and Saxony, who could claim part of the “Austrian inheritance,” abstained. The next demarche of Augustus II forced the Viennese court to act decisively. On February 6 (17), 1732, Count Vratislav presented to Empress Anna Ioannovna the emperor’s response to the promemory of the extraordinary envoy in Vienna, Count Levenwolde. The Emperor ordered the imperial ambassador in Warsaw, Count Wilczek, together with the Russian envoy, Count Friedrich Löwenwolde “all convenient and strong harassment, where appropriate, should be used” to protect Orthodox "dissidents" and the Russian population on the Polish border. If this is not enough, the emperor is ready to support Russia by force of arms, considering the situation a case of aggression. On July 13 (24), Emperor Charles arrived incognito in Prague, where he secretly met with King Frederick William in the house of Count Nostitz. The monarchs agreed to act jointly in the election of a new Polish king.

The Polish question could not leave France aside. Since the conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna in 1726, France has pursued a policy of “eastern barrier” towards Russia. The goal of this policy was to create a hostile environment around Russia from Sweden, Turkey and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. France helped Sweden rebuild its army and tried to establish allied relations between Turkey, Poland and Sweden, directed against Russia. The goal of the “eastern barrier” policy was to weaken Russia and divert its attention from the problems of Middle and Central Europe, which was supposed to ensure Russia’s non-interference in Austro-French relations.

On December 2 (13), 1732 in Berlin, the Russian ambassador Count Levenwolde and the imperial ambassador Count Seckendorf concluded an agreement with King Frederick William on joint actions in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which became known as the “Union of Three Black Eagles”. According to the agreement, to counter Leshchinsky, it was decided to deploy troops on the borders: 4,000 cavalry from Austria, 6,000 dragoons and 14,000 infantry from Russia, and 12 battalions and 20 squadrons from Prussia. The parties allocated 36,000 chervonnies (about 90,000 rubles) to bribe the tycoons. The Portuguese infante Manuel was announced as the general candidate for the election of the king, and Prince Augustus Wilhelm of Prussia was announced as the candidate in Courland. The Duke of Courland was not supposed to have possessions outside Courland and remained a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Löwenwolde mission reached a dead end when the emperor refused to commit the agreements to paper.

The balance of power in Europe was not in favor of King Augustus II, and most of the Polish magnates were opposed to him. The last step of Augustus the Strong was to propose a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between him and Prussia. Augustus offered Frederick William Polish Prussia, Courland and part of Greater Poland, the remaining lands became a hereditary kingdom. On December 31, 1732 (January 11, 1733) in Krosno, the king met with the Prussian minister von Grumbkow, but the negotiations were interrupted due to the worsening of the king’s illness. After 4 days in Warsaw, the king fell ill, on January 18 (29), he developed a fever, and on the morning of January 21 (February 1), 1733, the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland Augustus the Strong died.

The death of the king became a signal to action for the European powers. As the Russian envoy in Vienna, Louis Lanchinsky, reported to Empress Anna:

In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, executive power passed into the hands of the primate, Archbishop of Gniezno Count Feodor Potocki. With his first decrees, the primate expelled 1,200 Saxons from the country, disbanded two regiments of the Horse Guards and accepted Augustus II's favorite regiment, the Grand Musketeers, into Polish service. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw, Count Friedrich Levenwolde, found out in conversations with the primate that he was a strong supporter of Leszczynski. For Russia, the support of Leshchinsky by the Potocki family did not bode well, since the Potocki family controlled the voivodeships bordering Russia. The Warsaw headman, Count Józef Potocki, was the voivode of Kyiv, Anthony Potocki was the voivode of Bielski. The Potocki's relatives were the Russian voivode August Czartoryski, the elder of Chigirin Yablonovsky, the treasurer of the great crown Count Franciszek Ossolinsky, the crown regimentar Count Stanislav Poniatowski.

The support for Russia and Austria was the Lithuanian nobility, opposed to Leszczynski - the regimental Lithuanian prince Mikhail Vishnevetsky, Prince Mikhail-Kazimir Radziwill. The governor of Krakow, Prince Fyodor Lubomirski, and the castellan of Krakow, Prince Jan Wisniewiecki, were pro-Austrian. By February 12 (23), 1733, they organized a confederation in Krakow and captured the salt mines, but without receiving military assistance from Austria, the confederates soon submitted to the primate.

In Germany, Eugene of Savoy with an army of thirty thousand had difficulty holding the French army. As a result, the emperor, seeing that hopes for success were not justified, again expressed a desire to enter into peace negotiations. Many Spaniards who were at the Viennese court, fearing that with the loss of Lombardy they would lose their estates there, persuaded the emperor to enter into negotiations with Spain, promising Don Carlos the hand of Maria Theresa, but the Archduchess opposed this plan, and the weak-willed emperor did not know what to do. decide. Finally, he himself entered into secret negotiations with France.

At this time, in northern Italy, things began to take a favorable turn for him. The siege of Mantua dragged on for a long time, thanks to the quarrels of the allies who did not want to cede this important point to each other. This mutual distrust and Charles VI's threats to conclude a separate peace with Spain and Sardinia forced the French to make concessions, and a preliminary peace treaty was signed in Vienna on October 3.

The conditions remained the same, with the exception of some changes regarding the cession of lands to Sardinia and the fact that the Duke of Lorraine, in exchange for Tuscany, had to cede Bar and Lorraine to France. Sardinia also agreed to a truce.

Meanwhile, Koenigsek forced the Spaniards to lift the siege of Mantua, pushed them back into Tuscany and was preparing to move on Naples. Spain was also forced to cease hostilities.

However, the main peace treaty was not signed for several more years, until Fleury and Walpole persuaded Austria to convince the Duke of Lorraine to cede his possessions to France for 3.5 million livres in annual income and satisfy the wishes of the Sardinian king.

On November 8, 1738, peace was signed with France. On February 8, Sardinia joined it, and on April 21, 1739, Spain and Naples. According to this peace, Stanislav Leszczynski renounced the Polish throne, but retained the title of king and lifelong possession of Lorraine, which after his death was to go to France. In exchange for Lorraine, the Duke of Lorraine received Tuscany with the title of Grand Duke; Charles III was recognized as King of the Two Sicilies; Parma and Piacenza remained with Austria; the Sardinian king received the western part of Lombardy, and France fully recognized the Pragmatic Sanction.

As a result of the war, the international position of the Russian government was strengthened and its influence on Poland increased. France achieved the weakening of Austria.