The concept of what a state is. Definition of the concept of state: history, functions and characteristics

A state is a special organization of society, united by common sociocultural interests, occupying a certain territory, having its own system of governance and possessing internal and external sovereignty.

The term is commonly used in legal, political as well as social contexts. Currently, all the land on planet Earth, with the exception of Antarctica and some other territories, is divided between approximately two hundred states.

Definition of State

Neither in science nor in international law there is a single and generally accepted definition of the concept of “state”.

As of 2005, there is no legal definition of a state recognized by all countries in the world. The largest international organization, the UN, does not have the power to determine whether something is a state. " Recognition of a new state or government is an act that only states and governments can commit or refuse to commit. As a rule, it means a willingness to establish diplomatic relations. The United Nations is not a state or a government, and therefore does not have any authority to recognize any state or government.»How does a new state or government achieve recognition by the United Nations? How does a country join the UN as a member state? UN non-official document for information.

One of the few documents that defines a “state” in international law is the Montevideo Convention, signed in 1933 by several American states. Russia or the USSR did not sign it.

The textbook “General Theory of Law and State” offers the following definition of the state: “ a special organization of political power in society, which has a special apparatus of coercion, expressing the will and interests of the ruling class or the entire people"(General Theory of Law and State: Textbook. Edited by Lazarev V.V., M. 1994, p. 23).

The explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Ozhegov and Shvedova gives two meanings: “ 1. The main political organization of society, carrying out its management, protection of its economic and social structure" And " 2. A country under the control of a political organization that protects its economic and social structure.»

Here are a few more definitions of the state:

« State is a specialized and concentrated force for maintaining order. A state is an institution or a series of institutions whose main task (regardless of all other tasks) is to maintain order. The state exists where specialized agencies for maintaining order, such as the police and the judiciary, have been separated from other spheres of public life. They are the state" (Gellner E.

1991. Nations and nationalism/ Per. from English – M.: Progress. P.28).

« State there is a special, fairly stable political unit that represents an organization of power and administration separated from the population and claims the supreme right to govern (demand the execution of actions) over a certain territory and population, regardless of the latter’s consent; having the strength and means to implement its claims" (Grinin L.G. 1997. Formations and civilizations: socio-political, ethnic and spiritual aspects of the sociology of history // Philosophy and society. No. 5. P. 20).

« State is an independent centralized socio-political organization for regulating social relations. It exists in a complex, stratified society, located in a certain territory and consisting of two main strata - the rulers and the ruled. The relationship between these layers is characterized by the political dominance of the former and the tax obligations of the latter. These relations are legitimized by an ideology shared by at least part of society, which is based on the principle of reciprocity” (Claessen H. J. M.

1996. State // Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. Vol. IV. New York. P.1255).

« State there is a machine for the oppression of one class by another, a machine for keeping other subordinate classes in obedience to one class” (V.I. Lenin, Complete Works, 5th ed., vol. 39, p. 75). I copied this from: "Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary." M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983, article “State”. Also available in TSB on Yandex (arseniy.bocharov)

« State- an apparatus of violence in the hands of the ruling class" (V.I. Lenin. Complete works (third edition). - M.: Politizdat, vol. 20, p. 20).

“The state is the embodiment of law in society” Brockhaus-Efron. Philosophical Dictionary of Logic, Psychology, Ethics, Aesthetics and History of Philosophy edited by E.L. Radlova. St. Petersburg, 1911, p. 64.

Etymology

Word " state"in Russian comes from Old Russian " sovereign"(the so-called prince-ruler in ancient Rus'), which, in turn, is associated with the word " ruler" (giving " dominion»).

Old Russian " ruler" derived from " lord" Thus, almost all researchers agree on the connection between the words “ state" And " lord"(for example, Vasmer's dictionary, 1996, vol. 1, p. 446, 448). The exact etymology of the word “ lord» unknown.

It can be assumed, however, that since the derivatives " state», « dominion"appear later than those that already had established meanings" sovereign», « ruler", then in the Middle Ages " state"usually perceived as directly related to possessions" sovereign».

« Sovereign“At that time, a specific person (prince, ruler) usually appeared, although there were notable exceptions (the contractual formula “Mr. Veliky Novgorod” in 1136-1478).

State or country?

Although concepts a country And state often used interchangeably, there is a significant difference between them.

Concept state stands for political system of power established in a certain territory, a special kind of organization, while the concept a country rather refers to cultural, general geographical(common territory) and other factors. Term a country also has a less formal connotation. A similar difference exists in English with the words country(which is closer to the concept a country) And state (state), although in a certain context they can be used interchangeably.

State, union state (federation) or union of states?

Sometimes it is problematic to draw a clear line in defining the differences between the concepts of “state”, “unitary state”, “union state” and “union of states”.

Moreover, in history, one form often flowed into another during centralization and vice versa - the collapse of empires.

Origin of the state

There is no consensus on the reasons for the emergence of the state. There are several theories that explain the origin of the state, but none of them can be the final truth. The most ancient known states are the states of the Ancient East (in the territory of modern Iraq, Egypt, India, China).

Theories of the origin of the state:

• Patriarchal theory
• Theological theory
• Social contract theory
• Theory of violence
• Materialist (Marxist) theory
• Psychological theory
• Racial theory
• Organic theory
• Irrigation theory
• Complex theory of the origin of the state by H. J. M. Klassen

Functions of the state

Initially, any state performed a threefold task:

Manage the economy and society;

Defend the power of the exploiting class and suppress the resistance of the exploited;

Defend your own territory and (if possible) plunder someone else’s.

As social relations developed, the possibility of more civilized behavior of the state became possible:

The nature of the state and its position in the political system presuppose the presence of a number of specific functions that distinguish it from other political institutions. The functions of the state are the main directions of its activities related to the sovereignty of state power. The goals and objectives of the state, reflecting the main directions of the political strategy chosen by a particular government or regime, and the means of its implementation, differ from functions.

The state as an organism

Comparisons of the state with an organism are no less ancient in origin than political atomism. Their origin must also be sought in pre-scientific ideas, in the “natural” way of thinking, which quite instinctively in its characteristics of the state applies such concepts as “political whole”, “head of state”, its “members”, “organs” of the state, its “controls” or “functions”, etc. Alekseev N.N. Essays on the general theory of state. Basic premises and hypotheses of state science. Moscow scientific publishing house. 1919

Hegel pointed out that there cannot be a definition of the state, that the state is an organism, that is, the development of an idea in its differences. “The nature of an organism is such that if not all its parts become identical, if one of them assumes itself to be independent, then all must perish. With the help of predicates, principles, etc., it is also impossible to achieve a judgment about the state in which an organism should be seen, just as it is impossible with the help of predicates to comprehend the nature of God, whose life I must contemplate in myself. Savelyev: Nation and state. Theory of conservative reconstruction (2005): 2.1. Definition is impossible, the meaning is knowable

Plato bases his political philosophy on the likeness of the state to the individual: the more perfect the state is, the more similar it is to the individual. In the same way, Aristotle compares the state (set) with one person - many-legged, many-armed, with many feelings. Salisbury, referring to Plutarch, characterizes the state as an organism similar to the human body (the clergy is the soul of the state and, as such, has power over the entire body, not excluding the head of the state, i.e. the sovereign). Hobbes, Spinoza, and Rousseau have analogies. Organic theory of the state

Kjellen defined the term “geopolitics” as follows: it is the science of the state as a geographical organism embodied in space. R. Kjellen's thesis: “the state is a living organism.” This is developed in his main work, “The State as a Form of Life”: “The state is not a random or artificial conglomerate of various aspects of human life, held together only by the formulas of legalists; it is deeply rooted in historical and concrete realities, it is characterized by organic growth, it is an expression of the same fundamental type that man is. In a word, it represents a biological entity or a living being. As such, it follows the law of growth: ... strong, viable states, having limited space, are subject to the categorical imperative to expand their space by colonization, merger or conquest" Rudolf Kjellen - author of the category *geopolitics*

In “Political Geography” by F. Ratzel, which formed the basis of geopolitics, a number of fundamental ideas are given: 1) a state is an organism that is born, lives, ages and dies; 2) the growth of the state as an organism is determined by the “soil”; 3) the properties of the state are composed of the properties of the people and territory; 4) the “historical landscape” leaves an imprint on the citizen of the state; 5) the determining factor in the life of the state is “living space” (lebensraum). In accordance with these ideas, the scientist gives the following definition: “The state is formed as an organism tied to a certain part of the earth’s surface, and its characteristics develop from the characteristics of the people and the soil” Plakhov V. Western sociology

The constituent structural unit of the state as an organism is the family.

Moving from the individual to the social, each member of society performs its own function, increasing the likelihood of the existence of a state and civilization

Bibliography

• Grinin, L. E. 2007. The state and the historical process. M.: KomKniga.
• Kradin, N. N. 2001. Political anthropology. M.: Ladomir.
• Malkov S. Yu. Logic of the evolution of the political organization of states // History and Mathematics: Macrohistorical dynamics of society and state. M.: KomKniga, 2007. pp. 142-152.

Links

• The logic of the evolution of the political organization of states

The word “state” in Russian comes from the Old Russian “sovereign” (the so-called prince-ruler in ancient Rus'), which, in turn, is associated with the word “gospodar”.

The Old Russian “gospodar” comes from “lord”. Thus, almost all researchers agree on the connection between the words “state” and “lord” (for example, Vasmer’s dictionary, 1996, vol. 1, pp. 446, 448).

The state represents the central institution of power in society and the concentrated implementation of this power policy. Therefore, three phenomena - state, power and politics are identified.

How was the state determined at various stages of its development?

One of the greatest thinkers of antiquity, Aristotle (384-322 BC), believed that the state is “a self-sufficient communication of citizens, not needing any other communication and not dependent on anyone else.”

The outstanding Renaissance thinker Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) defined the state in terms of the common good, which should be obtained from the fulfillment of real state interests.

The major French thinker of the 16th century, Jean Bodin (1530-1596), viewed the state as “the legal administration of families and what they have in common with the supreme power, which must be guided by the eternal principles of goodness and justice. These principles should provide a common good, which should be the goal of the state structure.”

Famous English philosopher of the 16th century. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1697), a supporter of the absolutist power of the state - the guarantor of peace and the implementation of natural rights, defined it as “a single person, the supreme ruler, the sovereign, whose will, due to the agreement of many persons, is considered the will of all, so that he can use his powers and abilities everything for common peace and protection.”

The state was understood differently in later periods up to the present day. In German literature, for example, it was defined in some cases as “the organization of common national life on a certain territory and under one supreme authority” (R. Mol); in others - as “a union of free people in a certain territory under a common supreme power, existing for the full use of the legal state” (N. Aretin); thirdly, as “a naturally occurring organization of power, intended to protect a certain legal order” (L. Gumplowicz).

Prominent lawyer N.M. Korkunov argued that “the state is a social union of free people with a forcibly established peaceful order by granting the exclusive right of coercion only to state bodies.”

K. Marx and F. Engels turned to the definition of the state more than once. They believed that this is “the form in which individuals belonging to the ruling class realize their common interests and in which the entire civil society of a given era finds its concentration.” Many years later, F. Engels formulated a brief, but perhaps the most confrontational definition, according to which “the state is nothing more than a machine for suppressing one class by another.” IN AND. Lenin made some changes to the above definition. He wrote: “The state is a machine for maintaining the dominance of one class over another.”

It is noteworthy how Russian lawyers defined the concept of state. Many of these definitions are interesting not only from the point of view of historical science. Trubetskoy believes that “the state is a union of people that rules independently and exclusively within a certain territory.” Khvostov wrote that the state “is a union of free people living in a certain territory and subject to a coercive and independent supreme power.

The term "state" is commonly used in legal, political, as well as social contexts. Currently, all the land on planet Earth, with the exception of Antarctica and the adjacent islands, is divided between approximately two hundred states. The state is a form of power. A state is a social entity characterized by the constancy of territory and population and the presence of power that ensures this constancy.

Neither in science nor in international law there is a single and generally accepted definition of the concept of “state”.

At the moment, there is no legal definition of a state recognized by all countries of the world. The largest international organization, the UN, does not have the power to determine whether something is a state. “Recognition of a new state or government is an act that only states and governments can commit or refuse to commit. As a rule, it means a willingness to establish diplomatic relations. The United Nations is not a state or a government, and therefore has no power to recognize any state or government."

One of the few documents defining a “state” in international law is the Montevideo Convention, signed in 1933 by only a few American states.

The explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Ozhegov and Shvedova gives two meanings: “1. The main political organization of society, carrying out its management, protection of its economic and social structure" and "2. A country governed by a political organization that protects its economic and social structure.”

In modern science, there are five main approaches to the concept of state:

• · theological (widely used in Muslim teachings in connection with the concept of the caliphate);
• · classical (the state is considered on the basis of three components: population, territory, power);
• · legal (the state is the legal personification of the nation);
• · sociological (represented by the largest number of schools, including the Marxist direction under state jurisdiction);
• · cybernetic (the state as a special system in connection with information flows, forward and backward connections).

Thinkers, in various historical periods, tried to give their own definition of the state. They proceeded from objective factors that took place during a specific period in the development of human society.

Aristotle, for example, held idealistic views and saw in it a kind of good principle, the exclusive goal of which was the achievement of moral principles of life based on virtues.

When constructing an ideal and fair state, Plato believed that it was a “joint settlement” of people who, “being in need of many things, come together to live together and help each other.”

Polemicizing with Plato, Cicero, through the mouth of Scipio, says: “The reason for such a unification should be sought not so much in the weakness of people as in their inherent need to live together.”

Hegel, on the basis of his general philosophical system, considered the state to be a product of special spiritual principles of human existence: “The state is the reality of the moral idea, the moral spirit as an obvious, clear, substantial will, which thinks and knows itself and carries out what it knows and because she knows it."

Russian scientist I.A. Ilyin believed that the state is a union of people, organized on the basis of law, united by domination over a single territory and subordination to a single authority.

In the bourgeois era, the definition of the state as a collection (union) of people, the territory occupied by these people, and power became widespread. The famous statesman P. Duguit identifies four elements of the state:

• 1) a set of human individuals;
• 2) a certain territory;
• 3) sovereign power;
• 4) government.

“Under the name of the state,” wrote G.F. Shershenevich, - is understood as a union of people settled within certain borders and subordinate to one government.”

The definition of the state under consideration, which correctly reflects some features (signs) of the state, has given rise to various simplifications. Referring to it, some authors identified the state with the country, others with society, and still others with the circle of persons exercising power (the government).

IN AND. Lenin criticized this definition because many of its supporters named coercive power among the distinctive features of the state: “Coercive power exists in every human community, in the clan structure, and in the family, but there was no state here.”

Supporters of the psychological theory of law also disagree with this concept. “The state is not a collection of people of a certain kind,” argued F.F. Kokoshkin, “and the relationship between them, the form of community life, the well-known psychic connection between them.” However, the “form of community life,” the form of organization of society, is also only one of the signs, but not the entire state.

It should be noted that the concept of state denotes a political system of power established in a certain territory, a special kind of organization, while the concept of country rather refers to cultural, general geographic (common territory) and other factors. The term country also has a less official connotation. A similar distinction exists in English with the words country (which is closer to the concept of country) and state (state), although in a certain context they can be used interchangeably.

The most accurate definition of the state, in my opinion, was given by F. Engels: “the state is nothing more than a machine for suppressing one class by another.” I believe that the shape of this machine varies. In a slave state we have a monarchy or an aristocratic republic. In reality, the forms of government were extremely diverse, but the essence of the matter remained the same: slaves had no rights and remained an oppressed class, they were not recognized as people. We see the same thing in the serf state.

The change in the form of exploitation transformed the slave state into a serf state. This was of enormous importance. In a slave-owning society, the slave had complete lack of rights; he was not recognized as a person; in serfdom - the peasant’s attachment to the land. The main feature of serfdom is that the peasantry was considered attached to the land - this is where the very concept of serfdom came from. A peasant could work for a certain number of days for himself on the plot that the landowner gave him; the other part of the days the serf worked for the master. The essence of class society remained: society was based on class exploitation. Only landowners could have full rights; peasants were considered without rights. Their position in practice was very different from that of slaves in a slave state.

While there were no classes, this apparatus did not exist. When classes appeared, everywhere and always, along with the growth and strengthening of this division, a special institution appeared - the state.

This is precisely the opinion I adhere to, which is why I give preference to the works of F. Engels.

The diversity of views on the state is due primarily to the fact that the state itself is an extremely complex, multifaceted and historically changing phenomenon. The scientific nature of these views is determined by the degree of maturity of human thought in a given period of development of society, the objectivity of methodological approaches to the study of the state.

Knowledge of the natural properties and characteristics of the state “in general”, apparently, is only possible for a certain historical perspective due to the constantly changing economic, social, spiritual, national, environmental, religious and other factors that determine the content and structure of a state-organized society. Moreover, often the concept of the state is given not in its historical reality, but in an ideal representation. Instead of defining what a state is, they often only describe what it should be.

When talking about the political structure of society, we often use the words “state” and “country”, considering them identical concepts. Are we doing the right thing? We can answer this question only after we understand what a state is and what distinctive features it has.

Meaning and etymology of the term

Scientists have been arguing about what a state is for quite some time, but there is still no uniform definition of this term. Most pundits call a state a political entity that has sovereignty, establishes a certain legal order on its territory and has mechanisms of governance, protection and enforcement. It sounds confusing, so let's look at a specific example - the Russian Federation.

The Russian Federation is an independent state recognized by all countries of the world and has diplomatic relations with them. In other words, there is a sovereign status. Citizens of the Russian Federation are subject to the legal norms prescribed in the Constitution and state legislative acts. This means that in Russia there is a legal order established by the state. The Russian Federation has an army for protection, a system of government bodies for governance, and a police force that performs coercive functions.

The word “state” has Russian roots and comes from the word “sovereign”, which in Ancient Rus' was used to call the prince who ruled the country. “Sovereign” became a derivative of the word “sovereign”, and it, in turn, is a modified concept from “lord”. The origin of the latter is unknown to science, but everyone knows about the meaning - it is a synonym for the word “god”.

Signs of the state

We have clarified what a state is. Let's see if it has the same meaning as the term "country". If we summarize all the definitions given by scientists, we can conclude: a country is a certain territory that has political borders. It differs from the state in the absence of sovereignty. For example, the British Virgin Islands, governed by the UK, while a country, is not a state.

Among the main characteristics of a state, in addition to the presence of sovereignty, are the following:

• public power. The name “public” indicates that this government acts on behalf of the people. In essence, it is a mechanism of control (represented by officials) and coercion (police, army);

• legal regulation of social life through the publication of legislative acts. No state can exist without laws, otherwise chaos will reign;

• economic activity, expressed in the presence of a national currency, the existence of taxes and fees, the state budget, as well as trade;

• official language. This feature is one of the main ones in identifying a people as a nation and a country as a state. There may be several official languages, for example, in Switzerland there are four, but their status must be constitutionally secured;

• State symbols. The coat of arms, flag, and anthem are not the main criterion for defining a state, but they help to identify it. Seeing the yellow-blue banner with a trident, you understand that this is the state attribute of Ukraine, and the tricolor with a double-headed eagle is strongly associated with Russia.

Why is the state needed? Its main function is to create comfortable conditions for its citizens. This is possible when social and economic problems are solved in society and the integrity of the country is preserved. This is what the state does.

Forms of government and government

We all know that the system of government in Great Britain, ruled by Queen Elizabeth II, is different from the United States of America, where the Senate is considered the highest authority, and Germany, with its centralized government, is completely different from the federal government system that exists in Russia.

There are two forms of government:

• monarchy. It is called autocracy, because in this form of government power belongs to one person (king, emperor, tsar, prince) and is inherited. In addition to Great Britain, monarchies have survived in Denmark, Spain, Monaco, Sweden, and the Netherlands.

Monarchies are divided into 2 types: absolute and constitutional. The former are characterized by the presence of unlimited power in the head of state, while the latter represent a softer form of government, when the monarch does not have full power, but is forced to share it with parliament.

• A republic is a state in which the government is elected by the people. Examples include the USA, Russia, and Ukraine.

Republics are also divided into 2 types: presidential and parliamentary. In the first case, the president has more power, in the second - the parliament. The Russian Federation is a presidential republic, and Israel is a parliamentary republic.

Today, two forms of government are known: a unitary state and a federation. In the case of a unitary state, administrative legal units (regions, districts, districts, provinces, etc.) into which the country’s territory is divided are deprived of the status of state entities. Examples include Germany, France, and Japan. With the federation it's the other way around. The most striking examples are the Russian Federation and the USA.

It is important for a modern person not only to know what a state is, but also to recognize himself as a full member of it. Study the legislation of your country, and then, if the state cannot protect you properly, you can do it yourself.

State - an organization of political power that governs society and ensures order and stability in it.

Main signs of the state are: the presence of a certain territory, sovereignty, a broad social base, a monopoly on legitimate violence, the right to collect taxes, the public nature of power, the presence of state symbols.

The state fulfills internal functions, among which are economic, stabilization, coordination, social, etc. There are also external functions, the most important of which are ensuring defense and establishing international cooperation.

By form of government states are divided into monarchies (constitutional and absolute) and republics (parliamentary, presidential and mixed). Depending on the forms of government There are unitary states, federations and confederations.

State

State - this is a special organization of political power that has a special apparatus (mechanism) for managing society to ensure its normal functioning.

IN historical In terms of plan, the state can be defined as a social organization that has ultimate power over all people living within the boundaries of a certain territory, and whose main goal is to solve common problems and ensure the common good while maintaining, first of all, order.

IN structural In terms of government, the state appears as an extensive network of institutions and organizations representing three branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial.

Government is sovereign, i.e. supreme, in relation to all organizations and individuals within the country, as well as independent, independent in relation to other states. The state is the official representative of the entire society, all its members, called citizens.

Loans collected from the population and received from them are used to maintain the state apparatus of power.

The state is a universal organization, distinguished by a number of unparalleled attributes and characteristics.

Signs of the state

• Coercion - state coercion is primary and has priority over the right to coerce other entities within a given state and is carried out by specialized bodies in situations determined by law.
• Sovereignty - the state has the highest and unlimited power in relation to all individuals and organizations operating within its historical boundaries.
• Universality - the state acts on behalf of the entire society and extends its power to the entire territory.

Signs of the state are the territorial organization of the population, state sovereignty, tax collection, lawmaking. The state subjugates the entire population living in a certain territory, regardless of administrative-territorial division.

Attributes of the state

• Territory is defined by the boundaries separating the spheres of sovereignty of individual states.
• The population is the subjects of the state, over whom its power extends and under whose protection they are.
• The apparatus is a system of organs and the presence of a special “class of officials” through which the state functions and develops. The publication of laws and regulations that are binding on the entire population of a given state is carried out by the state legislative body.

Concept of state

The state appears at a certain stage of development of society as a political organization, as an institution of power and management of society. There are two main concepts of the emergence of the state. In accordance with the first concept, the state arises in the course of the natural development of society and the conclusion of an agreement between citizens and rulers (T. Hobbes, J. Locke). The second concept goes back to the ideas of Plato. She rejects the first and insists that the state arises as a result of the conquest (conquest) by a relatively small group of warlike and organized people (tribe, race) of a significantly larger but less organized population (D. Hume, F. Nietzsche). Obviously, in the history of mankind, both the first and second methods of the emergence of the state took place.

As already mentioned, at first the state was the only political organization in society. Subsequently, during the development of the political system of society, other political organizations (parties, movements, blocs, etc.) arise.

The term "state" is usually used in a broad and narrow sense.

In a broad sense the state is identified with society, with a certain country. For example, we say: “states that are members of the UN”, “states that are members of NATO”, “the state of India”. In the examples given, the state refers to entire countries along with their peoples living in a certain territory. This idea of ​​the state dominated in antiquity and the Middle Ages.

In the narrow sense the state is understood as one of the institutions of the political system that has supreme power in society. This understanding of the role and place of the state is justified during the period of formation of the institutions of civil society (XVIII - XIX centuries), when the political system and social structure of society become more complex, there is a need to separate the actual state institutions and institutions from society and other non-state institutions of the political system.

The state is the main socio-political institution of society, the core of the political system. Possessing sovereign power in society, it controls the lives of people, regulates relations between various social strata and classes, and is responsible for the stability of society and the safety of its citizens.

The state has a complex organizational structure, which includes the following elements: legislative institutions, executive and administrative bodies, the judicial system, public order and state security bodies, armed forces, etc. All this allows the state to perform not only the functions of managing society, but also the functions of coercion (institutionalized violence) in relation to both individual citizens and large social communities (classes, estates, nations). Thus, during the years of Soviet power in the USSR, many classes and estates were virtually destroyed (bourgeoisie, merchant class, wealthy peasantry, etc.), entire peoples were subjected to political repression (Chechens, Ingush, Crimean Tatars, Germans, etc.).

Signs of the state

The state is recognized as the main subject of political activity. WITH functional point of view, the state is the leading political institution that manages society and ensures order and stability in it. WITH organizational point of view, the state is an organization of political power that enters into relations with other subjects of political activity (for example, citizens). In this understanding, the state is seen as a set of political institutions (courts, social security system, army, bureaucracy, local authorities, etc.) responsible for organizing social life and financed by society.

Signs that distinguish the state from other subjects of political activity are as follows:

Availability of a certain territory— the jurisdiction of a state (the right to hold court and resolve legal issues) is determined by its territorial borders. Within these boundaries, the power of the state extends to all members of society (both those who have citizenship of the country and those who do not);

Sovereignty- the state is completely independent in internal affairs and in conducting foreign policy;

Variety of resources used— the state accumulates the main power resources (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) to exercise its powers;

Striving to represent the interests of the entire society - the state acts on behalf of the whole society, and not individuals or social groups;

Monopoly on legitimate violence- the state has the right to use force to enforce laws and punish their violators;

Right to collect taxes— the state establishes and collects various taxes and fees from the population, which are used to finance government bodies and solve various management problems;

Public nature of power- the state ensures the protection of public interests, not private ones. When implementing public policy, there are usually no personal relationships between the authorities and citizens;

Availability of symbols- the state has its own signs of statehood - a flag, coat of arms, anthem, special symbols and attributes of power (for example, a crown, a scepter and an orb in some monarchies), etc.

In a number of contexts, the concept of “state” is perceived as close in meaning to the concepts of “country”, “society”, “government”, but this is not so.

A country— the concept is primarily cultural and geographical. This term is usually used when talking about area, climate, natural areas, population, nationalities, religions, etc. The state is a political concept and denotes the political organization of that other country - its form of government and structure, political regime, etc.

Society- a concept broader than the state. For example, a society can be above the state (society as all of humanity) or pre-state (such as a tribe and a primitive clan). At the present stage, the concepts of society and state also do not coincide: public power (say, a layer of professional managers) is relatively independent and isolated from the rest of society.

Government - only part of the state, its highest administrative and executive body, an instrument for the exercise of political power. The state is a stable institution, while governments come and go.

General characteristics of the state

Despite all the diversity of types and forms of state formations that arose earlier and currently exist, it is possible to identify common features that are, to one degree or another, characteristic of any state. In our opinion, these signs were presented most fully and convincingly by V.P. Pugachev.

These signs include the following:

• public power, separated from society and not coinciding with social organization; the presence of a special layer of people exercising political control of society;
• a certain territory (political space), delineated by borders, to which the laws and powers of the state apply;
• sovereignty - supreme power over all citizens living in a certain territory, their institutions and organizations;
• monopoly on the legal use of force. Only the state has “legal” grounds for limiting the rights and freedoms of citizens and even depriving them of their lives. For these purposes, it has special power structures: army, police, courts, prisons, etc. P.;
• the right to collect taxes and fees from the population that are necessary for the maintenance of government bodies and material support of state policy: defense, economic, social, etc.;
• mandatory membership in the state. A person acquires citizenship from the moment of birth. Unlike membership in a party or other organizations, citizenship is a necessary attribute of any person;
• a claim to represent the entire society as a whole and to protect common interests and goals. In reality, no state or other organization is able to fully reflect the interests of all social groups, classes and individual citizens of society.

All functions of the state can be divided into two main types: internal and external.

By doing internal functions The activities of the state are aimed at managing society, at coordinating the interests of various social strata and classes, and at preserving their powers of power. Carrying out external functions, the state acts as a subject of international relations, representing a certain people, territory and sovereign power.

Main functions (tasks of the state) External Participation in solving global problems Ensuring national security Development of mutually beneficial cooperation Upholding state interests in international relations Internal Economic Social Ensuring democracy Protecting the constitutional system Ensuring law and order and legality Consolidation of society Environmental

Form of government Monarchy is a form of government in which supreme state power is concentrated in the hands of one person - the monarch (head of state) and is inherited. Republic is a form of government in which supreme state power belongs to government bodies elected for a certain period of time.

The most ancient form of government is monarchy. Before the beginning of modern times, the vast majority of states were monarchical. At the end of the XVIII - XX centuries. Many monarchies gave way to a republican form of government. Most European countries today are republics.

Monarchy (from the Greek monarchia - autocracy, autocracy) is a form of government in which the supreme state power is fully or partially concentrated in the hands of one person - the monarch (head of state) - and is inherited. The inheritance system is personal - the throne is inherited by a specific person predetermined by law. family - the monarch is chosen by the reigning family itself or the reigning monarch, but only from persons belonging to a given dynasty

Monarchy Absolute (unlimited) monarchy All power - legislative, executive, judicial - is concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and its origin is recognized as divine Limited (constitutional, parliamentary) monarchy The power of the hereditary monarch is limited by the constitution of the country or some representative body, most often the parliament of Bahrain , Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, etc. Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands, Japan, etc. Dual monarchy A transitional form of monarchy in which the power of the monarch is limited by parliament in the legislative field Jordan, Morocco, Nepal

Atypical monarchies Elective monarchy in Malaysia (the king is elected for 5 years from among the hereditary sultans of 9 states) Collective in the UAE (the powers of the monarch belong to the Council of Emirs) Patriarchal monarchy in Swaziland (the king is the leader of the tribe) Theocracy - a form of monarchy in which the highest political and spiritual power is concentrated in the hands of the clergy, and the head of the church is also the secular head of state (Vatican City, Saudi Arabia, Brunei)

Types of monarchies and their characteristics Line of comparison Parliamentary (constitutional) Absolute Dualistic 1. Legislative power belongs to the Monarch Divided between the monarch and parliament to Parliament 2. Exercising executive power Monarch Formally - the monarch, in fact - the government 3. Appointment of the head of government Monarch Formally - the monarch, but taking into account parliamentary elections 4. Responsibility of the government Monarch To parliament

Types of monarchies and their characteristics Line of comparison Absolute Dualistic Parliamentary (constitutional) 5. The right to dissolve parliament -- (no parliament) The monarch (unlimited) The monarch (on the recommendation of the government 6. The monarch's right of veto on parliamentary decisions -- Absolute veto Provided for, but not used 7. Extraordinary fiat legislation of the monarch Unlimited (the decree of the monarch has the force of law) Only during the period between sessions of parliament Provided for, but not used 8. Modern states Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia Jordan, Morocco, Nepal Belgium, UK, Denmark, Spain, Netherlands, Japan

Presidential The President is endowed with great power: he combines the functions of head of state and head of government, forms the government; elected by direct vote and by all citizens Parliamentary The leading authority is elected by citizens, the parliament forms the government, reporting to it Mixed semi-presidential The power of the president is significant, but the formation of the government takes place with the participation of parliament Republic of the USA, Latin American countries, Portugal India, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Hungary Austria, Russia, France

Differences between parliamentary and presidential republics Presidential Parliamentary Mixed President (head of state) is elected by the population President (head of state) is elected and controlled by parliament President (head of state) elected by the population Head of government - president Head of government - prime minister (key role in governance) Head of government - prime minister -Minister The government is appointed by the president The government is formed by parliament The government is appointed by the president The government is responsible to the president The government is responsible to parliament

Government system Federation is a form of government system in which territorial units have independence. A confederation is a union of states. A unitary state is a form of government in which territorial units do not have political independence

Government structure Federative (federation) Confederative (confederation) Unitary Brazil, Germany, India, Mexico, Russia, USA, Switzerland, etc. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), European Union (EU) Great Britain, Hungary, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Italy , France, Sweden, etc.

Federation (from Latin foedus - union, agreement) A stable union of administrative-territorial units (states, lands, republics), independent within the limits of powers distributed between them and the center, having their own legislative, executive and judicial bodies and, as a rule, a constitution, Often citizens of federal subjects have the right to dual citizenship

Unitary state (from the French unitare - single) A single politically homogeneous organization consisting of administrative-territorial units (governments, territories, provinces) that do not have their own statehood. There is a single constitution, a system of supreme bodies of state power, administration, and a judicial system

Confederation (from Latin confoederatio - union, community) A permanent union of independent states for the implementation of common specific goals. Its members fully retain state sovereignty, have the right of free exit and transfer to the union the solution of a limited range of issues, most often in the defense field, in the field of foreign policy, transport, communications, and the monetary system