The First World War led to. Events of the First World War

Thirty-eight of the fifty sovereign states that existed at that time were involved in the First World War to one degree or another. It was simply not possible to control such a large-scale theater of military operations, so the path to signing a peace agreement was quite long and difficult.

Entente's Hundred Day Offensive

The final stage of the long and bloody First World War was the hundred-day offensive. This large-scale military operation of the Entente armed forces against the German army ended in the defeat of the enemy and the signing of the Compiegne Armistice, which ended the war. Belgian, Australian, English, French, American, and Canadian troops took part in the decisive offensive, and Canadian soldiers distinguished themselves.

The German offensive ended in the summer of 1918. Enemy troops reached the banks of the Marne River, but (as before, in 1914) suffered a serious defeat. The Allies began to actively develop a plan for the defeat of the German army. The day of the end of World War I was approaching. Marshal Foch concluded that the most favorable moment for a major offensive had finally arrived. The number of American troops in France by the summer of 1918 was increased to 1.2 million people, which made it possible to neutralize the numerical superiority of the German army. British troops received reinforcements from Palestine.

The main attack site was the area on the Somme River. Here was the border between British and French troops. The flat terrain made it possible to conduct tank battles, and the great advantage of the Allies was the presence of a significant mass of tanks. In addition, this area was covered by a weakened German army. The order of attack was clearly planned, and the plan for breaking through the defense was methodical. All preparations were carried out secretly, using measures to mislead the enemy.

In the year of the end of World War I, the German army was already sufficiently weakened, which made it possible to successfully conduct offensive operations. In August, the Allies began firing at communications centers, rear facilities, observation and command posts, and positions of the Second German Army. At the same time, a tank attack was organized. This suddenness was a complete success. The Amiens operation came as a surprise to the German command, and the battle conditions for the enemy were complicated by thick fog and massive shell explosions.

In just one day of the offensive, German troops lost up to 27 thousand people killed and captured, about four hundred guns, and a significant amount of various property. Allied aircraft shot down 62 aircraft. The offensive continued on August 9 and 10. By this time, the Germans had managed to reorganize for defense, so the advance developed at a slower pace, French and British tanks suffered losses. By August 12, German troops were driven out to Albert, Bray, Sean, west of Roy. The next day, the offensive stopped, as the troops of Great Britain and France completed their task, bringing the end of World War 1 closer.

The front line was reduced by twenty-four kilometers as a result of the Saint-Mihiel operation. During the four days of the active Allied offensive, German troops lost approximately 16 thousand people as prisoners, more than four hundred guns; the losses of the American army did not exceed 7 thousand people. The Saint-Mihiel operation was the first independent American offensive. Despite the fact that success was achieved, the operation revealed shortcomings in the soldiers’ training and the lack of necessary experience among the US command. In fact, the offensive began when the Germans had already managed to withdraw some of the troops from the territory.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

At the beginning of January 1918, the date of the end of World War I, the draft of the future peace treaty was already ready. The document was developed by US President V. Wilson. The agreement envisaged the withdrawal of German armies from Belgium and Russia, the reduction of armaments, the proclamation of the independence of Poland, and the creation of the League of Nations. This program was approved reluctantly by the US allies, but later became the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. The “Fourteen Points” became an alternative to the Peace Decree, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin and was not acceptable to Western states.

The end of World War I was approaching, so the need to develop a document that would regulate relations between countries after the end of hostilities was an important issue. proposed open peace negotiations, after which there would be no secret agreements. It was supposed to make shipping free, remove all economic barriers, establish equality in trade for all states, reduce national armaments to a minimum that is reasonable and compatible with domestic security, and resolve colonial disputes absolutely impartially.

Fourteen points included Russia in the question. All Russian territories must be liberated by the end of World War I. Russia was guaranteed the right to make an independent decision regarding national policy and the path of political development. The country must be ensured admission to the League of Nations in the form of government that it independently chooses. As for Belgium, complete liberation and restoration were envisaged, without attempts to limit sovereignty.

November Revolution in Germany

Just before the end of World War I, a revolution thundered in Germany, the cause of which was the crisis of the Kaiser’s regime. The beginning of revolutionary actions is considered to be the uprising of sailors in Kiel on November 4, 1918, the culmination is the proclamation of a new political system on November 9, and the end date (formally) is November 11, when Friedrich Ebert signed the Weimar Constitution. The monarchy was overthrown. The revolution led to the establishment of parliamentary democracy.

First Truce of Compiegne

The end date of World War I was approaching. Since the end of October 1918, there was an active exchange of peace notes with the United States, and the German high command sought to obtain the best conditions for a truce. An agreement between Germany and the Entente to cease hostilities was signed on November 11. The end of World War I was officially documented in the French region of Picardy, in the Compiegne Forest. The final results of the conflict were summed up by the Treaty of Versailles.

Circumstances of signing

At the end of September 1918, the German command informed the Kaiser, who was at his headquarters in Belgium, that Germany's position was hopeless. There were no guarantees that the front would hold out for at least another day. The Kaiser was advised to accept the terms of the US President and carry out reforms in the government in order to hope for better conditions. This would allow the responsibility for Germany's defeat to be shifted to the democratic parties and parliament, so as not to tarnish the imperial government.

Armistice negotiations began in October 1918. Later it turned out that the Germans were not ready to consider the Kaiser’s abdication, as Woodrow Wilson demanded. Negotiations were delayed, although it was absolutely clear that the end of the 1st World War was approaching. The signing ultimately took place at 5:10 am on November 11 in the carriage of Marshal F. Foch in the Compiegne Forest. The German delegation was received by Marshal Von and British Admiral R. Wimyss. The truce came into force at eleven o'clock in the morning. One hundred and one salvos were fired on this occasion.

Basic terms of the truce

According to the signed agreement, hostilities ceased within six hours from the time of signing, the immediate evacuation of German troops from Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, and Luxembourg began, which was to be fully completed within fifteen days. Following this, German troops were to be evacuated from the territory on the western bank of the Rhine River and within a radius of thirty kilometers from the bridges on the right bank (with further occupation of the liberated territories by the Allies and the United States).

All German troops had to be evacuated from the eastern front to the position as of August 1, 1914 (July 28, 1914 - the date of the start of World War 1), and the end of the withdrawal of troops was replaced by the occupation of US and Allied territories. The naval blockade of Germany by Great Britain remained in effect. All submarines and modern ships of Germany were interned (internment is forced detention or other restriction of freedom of movement). The enemy command had to hand over in good condition 1,700 aircraft, 5 thousand locomotives, 150 thousand carriages, 5 thousand guns, 25 thousand machine guns and 3 thousand mortars.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Under the terms of the peace, Germany had to abandon the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with the Bolshevik government. This agreement ensured the exit of the RSFSR from the First World War. At the first stage, the Bolsheviks persuaded Western states to conclude a universal peace and even received formal consent. But the Soviet side delayed negotiations to agitate for a general revolution, while the German government insisted on recognizing the right to occupy Poland, parts of Belarus and the Baltic states.

The fact of the conclusion of the agreement caused a sharp reaction both among the opposition in Russia and in the international arena, which led to the escalation of the Civil War. The agreement did not lead to the cessation of hostilities in Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe, but divided the “clash of empires”, which was finally documented by the end of World War I.

Political consequences

The dates of the beginning and end of World War I outline an important period in modern history. As a result of hostilities, Europe ended its existence as the center of the colonial world. The four largest empires, namely German, Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian, collapsed. Communism spread throughout the Russian Empire and Mongolia, and the United States moved to a leading position in international politics.

After the end of the First World War, several new sovereign states emerged: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Finland, the State of the Slovenian-Serbs and Croats. The socio-economic processes of the turn of the century slowed down, but contradictions on an ethnic and class basis, as well as interstate contradictions, intensified. The international legal order has changed significantly.

Economic consequences

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for the economies of most countries. Military losses amounted to $208 billion and were twelve times the gold reserves of European states. A third of Europe's national wealth was simply destroyed. Only two countries increased wealth during the war—Japan and the United States. The States finally established themselves as the leader of economic development in the world, and Japan established a monopoly in Southeast Asia.

The wealth of the United States increased by 40% during the years of hostilities in Europe. Half of the world's gold reserves were concentrated in America, and the value of production increased from 24 to 62 billion dollars. The status of a neutral country allowed the United States to supply military materials, raw materials and food to the warring parties. Trade volumes with other countries doubled, and the value of exports tripled. The country eliminated almost half of its own debt and became a creditor totaling $15 billion.

Germany's total expenditures amounted to 150 billion in local currency, and the national debt increased from five to one hundred and sixty billion marks. By the end of World War I (compared with 1913), production volumes decreased by 43%, agricultural production by 35 to 50%. In 1916, famine began because, due to the blockade by the Entente countries, only a third of the necessary food products were supplied to Germany. According to the Treaty of Versailles, after the end of the armed confrontation, Germany had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 132 billion gold marks.

Destruction and loss of life

During the war, about 10 million military personnel died, including about a million missing in action, and up to 21 million were wounded. The German Empire suffered the greatest losses (1.8 million), 1.7 million citizens died in the Russian Empire, 1.4 million in France, 1.2 million in Austria-Hungary, and 0.95 million in Great Britain. In the war Thirty-four states with a population of about 67% of the world's population took part. As a percentage of the total number of civilians, the most significant losses were suffered by Serbia (6% of citizens died), France (3.4%), Romania (3.3%) and Germany (3%).

Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Conference resolved the main problems of the reconstruction of the world after the end of the First (1) World War. Treaties were signed with Austria, Germany, Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. During the negotiations, the Big Four (leaders of France, the USA, Great Britain and Italy) held one hundred and forty-five meetings (in an informal setting) and made all decisions that were later ratified by other participating countries (a total of 27 states participated). None of the governments that at that time claimed the status of legitimate power in the Russian Empire were invited to the conference.

Armistice Day celebrations

The day of the signing of the truce in the Compiegne Forest, which put an end to armed clashes, is a national holiday in most states of the former Entente. The centenary of the end of World War I was celebrated in 2018. In the UK, the victims were remembered with a minute of silence; the remembrance ceremony took place in the French capital at the Arc de Triomphe. The ceremony was attended by leaders of more than 70 countries.

On June 28, the Bosnian city of Sarajevo was especially crowded and lively. Archduke Franz Ferdinand himself arrived in the province recently annexed to the empire to watch the exercises of the glorious Austrian troops. The royal lady moved around the city in a convertible, not particularly concerned about her safety. Two shots fired from the Browning killed the Archduke's wife and himself. It was these few seconds that divided time into “before” and “after” in world history.

Beginning of the First World War

However, hostilities did not begin immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. The official declaration of war was preceded by a month of tension, the so-called “July Crisis”. Austria-Hungary sent a 10-point ultimatum to the Serbian government. In fact, this was gross interference in the internal affairs of the Balkan country. At the same time, it was no secret that the terrorists who made a successful attempt on the life of a representative of the Austrian ruling house of Habsburg were actively supported by some government and military figures in Serbia. [Collection: The beginning of the First World War]

The ultimatum was handed to the Serbs on July 23. On the 25th the Austrians received an answer. Serbia agreed to fulfill almost all points, with the exception of one - to allow the Austrians into its territory to carry out investigative measures. Many contemporaries assessed this response as a peace-loving gesture on the part of Serbia, but Austria-Hungary was already preparing for a forceful solution to the problem. Germany also supported her in this.

Russia, having learned about what was happening in the Balkans, began a partial mobilization of the population liable for military service. This met with decisive resistance from the German Empire. Despite the hesitations of Nicholas II and the threats of Wilhelm II, on July 30, general mobilization in the Romanov state was announced. Russia's ally France also began military preparations. The local conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which began on July 28, quickly escalated into a pan-European war - on August 1, the war between Russia and Germany began, on August 3 France entered the fray, and the next day - Great Britain.

Participants of the First World War

On the battlefields of the four-year world massacre, the sons of many states laid down their lives. In addition to the main characters: the Entente consisting of Russia, France, Great Britain and Italy, which joined them in 1915, on the one hand, and the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) on the other, the dominions and satellites of the above took part in the war countries [Collection: Participants of the First World War]

Most states sought to solve their foreign policy problems; most often, aggressive goals were set. However, for some countries the war turned out to be a literal struggle for survival. This concerned, first of all, Serbia and Belgium.

Austria-Hungary sought to solve the Balkan problem and limit Russian influence in the region. Germany dreamed of a more worthy “place in the sun” and inclusion in the colonial system. In this it was opposed by Great Britain, which was also not against increasing its territories and expanding its sales market. France's goal was revenge against Germany, which defeated the country in 1871.

The Russian Empire hoped to strengthen its influence in the Balkans and solve the problem of the Black Sea straits. The dream of Constantinople became an idea that inspired many statesmen and military leaders to wage a difficult war. The Ottoman Empire was, to some extent, fighting a war to the death, but the leaders also had certain geopolitical plans - mainly in the Caucasus.

They did not pursue aggressive goals in the classical sense of the United States - by entering the war in 1917, the Americans significantly changed the situation in favor of the Entente. President Woodrow Wilson hoped that after the World War, the United States would become the world's arbiter, the moral authority for the rest of the world. Including, for this purpose, according to Wilson, it was created.

World War I operations

In the public consciousness, the First World War is associated primarily with trench life, dirty trenches, and senseless slaughter. So it was - starting in the autumn of 1914, after the unsuccessful march of the Kaiser’s troops to Paris and the “miracle on the Marne”, the front stabilized and snaked from the coast to the Swiss border.

This line of contact would remain virtually unchanged until 1918. The warring parties tried to change the current stalemate, but the strategic effect of the operations was negligible, and the loss of life was unprecedented. Old Europe has never seen such bloodshed before. [Collection: Operations of the First World War]

In 1915, the Allies tried to break through the front at Artois and Ypres, but the front line remained virtually unchanged. The losses were enormous: during the autumn operation in Artois and Champagne, the sides lost about 350 thousand people killed and wounded.

The year 1916 was marked by two major operations, the names of which became household names. This is the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. In both battles, the sides lost a total of about two million people killed and wounded. The Somme and Verdun remain examples of enormous human tragedy and the senselessness of war.

In 1917, the United States entered the war, and the strategic situation changed in favor of the Entente. The Allies were now concentrating their forces for a decisive blow against the Central Powers and switched to secondary theaters of war. Realizing that time was working in the enemy's favor, Germany launched a powerful offensive on the Western Front in 1918. The Kaiser's troops achieved major successes, but due to the lack of reserves and limited material resources, victory turned into defeat. In August, the Entente launched a counter-offensive, which ended with the signing on November 11, 1918.

Military operations took place all over the world. Military blocs collided in the vastness of the Middle East, in the Alps on the Italian front, carried out raids in African colonies, and acted against each other’s sea communications. But the fate of the war was decided on the fields of Flanders and Artois, near Ypres and among the forts of Verdun.

Russia in World War I

In August 1914, the Russian Empire had not yet managed to implement the program for modernizing the army and navy. The tsarist army has not waged major wars since the clash with. The strength was the number - the government was able to mobilize more than 5 million people, in peacetime 1.5 million served in the army. [Collection: Russia in the First World War]

For comparison, Germany had less than a million soldiers and officers in peacetime; after mobilization, this number increased by almost 4 million people.

In August 1914, the Russian army launched an offensive in East Prussia, responding to the call of France. Initial success gave way to the defeat of Samsonov's army in the Masurian swamps in September. Russian troops retreated to their original positions.

During the autumn months, the German command attempted to eliminate the so-called “Polish salient” - the Russian Kingdom of Poland. The army was forced to abandon Western Poland, but at the same time carried out successful offensives in Austrian Galicia and Bukovina.

In winter, as a result of the Sarakamysh operation on the Caucasian front, Russian troops stopped the Turkish advance and entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. The Caucasian theater of military operations remained the most successful for Russia throughout the war.

The next year, 1915, the German command planned to withdraw Russia from the war. The “great retreat” of the Russian army began. The troops suffered heavy losses, and the German offensives greatly affected the mood of soldiers and officers. Russia lost its conquests in Galicia and Bukovina and was forced to leave Poland, part of the Baltic states and Belarus. However, she remained in the war.

In 1916, the Allies tried to break German resistance. The Brusilov breakthrough, organized in the summer of 1916, became an important link in the Somma-Verdun-Isonzo chain. The Russians advanced 100 kilometers behind the front line, forcing Germany to transfer reserves to patch up holes. But the success turned out to be local.

In 1917, against the backdrop of the revolution, the Russian army began to disintegrate, and cases of desertion and fraternization became more frequent. The July operation, the so-called “Kerensky offensive,” failed miserably. Russia, now Bolshevik, withdrew from the war in March 1918, signing the difficult Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Peace of Versailles

The First World War turned out to be the boundary between the golden nineteenth century and the as yet unknown twentieth century. The victorious powers created a new world order, and the Treaty of Versailles was to become one of its most important pillars. , now a republic, faced a difficult test on the sidelines of the Paris Peace Conference. [Collection: Peace of Versailles]

Discussions about the future of the losing country took many months. The Allies could not come to a common denominator - there were too many important issues related to Germany and the need to prevent a similar military conflict in the future. As a result of difficult disputes, by June an agreed upon version of the peace agreement was developed, which was signed on July 28, 1919 (the day of the assassination of the Archduke) in the Palace of Versailles. Ratification took place in early 1920.

105 years ago, the first military conflict on a global scale began, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time (two-thirds of the world's population) were involved.

The war was fought between two coalitions of powers - the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain) and the countries of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; since 1915 - the Quadruple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) - for the redivision of the world, colonies, spheres of influence and investment of capital, as noted in the Great Russian Encyclopedia.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the USA, Germany and Japan began to outstrip Great Britain and France in economic development and lay claim to their colonies. Germany acted most aggressively on the world stage. It sought to take possession of the colonies of Great Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands, to secure Alsace and Lorraine captured from France, to tear Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states away from the Russian Empire, to subjugate the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria to its influence and, together with Austria-Hungary, to establish its control in the Balkans.

Immediately after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, as a result of which France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, the threat of a new war became constant. France hoped for the return of lost territories, but was afraid of a second German attack. Great Britain and the Russian Empire did not want a new defeat of France and the establishment of German hegemony in the western part of the European continent. In turn, Germany feared the strengthening of the Russian Empire in South-Eastern Europe at the expense of Austria-Hungary due to the strained relations between these empires after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. This led to the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance in 1879, which Italy joined in 1882. Italy was prompted to do this by the struggle with France over the division of North Africa. As a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance, the Russian-French Alliance of 1891–1893 was created, the BDT notes.

In 1904, an agreement was reached between France and Great Britain on basic colonial issues, which served as the basis for the British-French Entente (“Concord of the Heart”). The Russian Empire, weakened by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and the First Revolution of 1905–1907, in turn concluded a similar agreement with Great Britain in 1907, which actually meant Russia’s accession to the Entente.

Thus, the leading powers of the continent were divided into two groups opposing each other. Tensions in international relations were heightened by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German rivalry in Morocco, the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908–1909, and the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. In this situation, any new conflict could lead to world war. In addition, large European and American concerns associated with the production of weapons were interested in increasing international tension and the prospects for the outbreak of hostilities.

Countries began preparing for war long before it began. The most persistent rivalry in the arms race was between Great Britain, France, Russia and Germany. From the 1880s to 1914, these powers nearly doubled the size of their armies. At the beginning of the First World War, the French peacetime army numbered about 900 thousand people, the German army - over 800 thousand, the Russian army - more than 1.4 million people. The military-economic potential of the Entente countries was generally higher than the potential of its opponents.

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, by Serbian nationalists on June 15 (28), 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia). By agreement with Germany, Austria-Hungary on July 10 (23) presented Serbia with an ultimatum that was obviously unacceptable for a sovereign state, and when its term expired, on July 15 (28) it declared war on it and immediately carried out an artillery shelling of Belgrade. The Entente countries offered Austria-Hungary to resolve the conflict peacefully. But after its attack on Serbia, fulfilling its allied obligations, the Russian Empire announced general mobilization on July 17 (30). The next day, Germany demanded that Russia stop mobilization. Having received no response to the ultimatum, Germany declared war on Russia on July 19 (August 1), and on July 21 (August 3) on France and Belgium, which rejected the ultimatum to allow German troops through its territory. Great Britain demanded that Germany maintain the neutrality of Belgium, but, having received a refusal, on July 22 (August 4), together with its dominions, declared war on Germany. On July 24 (August 6), Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. An ally of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, Italy declared neutrality.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The First World War lasted 1568 days. During the war, a number of other countries became participants: Japan, Romania and others. The number of warring armies exceeded 37 million people. The total number of people mobilized into the armed forces is about 70 million. The length of the fronts was up to 2.5–4 thousand km. The casualties of the parties were about 9.5 million killed and over 20 million wounded.

The First World War ended with the complete defeat and capitulation of Germany and its allies.

The war not only failed to resolve the contradictions that led to its emergence, but, on the contrary, contributed to their deepening and strengthened the objective preconditions for the emergence of new crisis phenomena in the post-war world. Immediately after its end, a struggle developed for a new redivision of the world, which two decades later led to the Second World War of 1939–1945, even more destructive in its consequences.

In a number of countries, the First World War ended with a powerful revolutionary explosion and the overthrow of governments that stood for the continuation of the war, the BDT says. The Russian Empire ceased to exist.

The Entente's victory in the war was enshrined in a number of treaties: the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919, the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty of 1919 and others. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 established the League of Nations. As a result of the post-war system, the political map of the world has changed significantly. The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary collapsed, and a number of new states emerged - Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Finland, Yugoslavia.

Day of Remembrance of Russian soldiers who died in the First World War of 1914–1918.

At the initiative of the Russian parliament, the day of Russia's entry into the First World War, August 1, was established as the official memorial date of our country as the Day of Remembrance of Russian soldiers who died in the First World War of 1914–1918. The corresponding federal law was signed by Russian President Vladimir Putin on December 30, 2012.

Text: Vera Marunova

The First World War was a war between two coalitions of powers: Central Powers, or Quadruple Alliance(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Türkiye, Bulgaria) and Entente(Russia, France, Great Britain).

A number of other states supported the Entente in the First World War (that is, they were its allies). This war lasted approximately 4 years (officially from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918). This was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.

During the war, the composition of the coalitions changed.

Europe in 1914

Entente

British Empire

France

Russian empire

In addition to these main countries, more than twenty states grouped on the side of the Entente, and the term “Entente” began to be used to refer to the entire anti-German coalition. Thus, the anti-German coalition included the following countries: Andorra, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Italy (from May 23, 1915), Japan, Liberia, Montenegro , Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay.

Cavalry of the Russian Imperial Guard

Central Powers

German Empire

Austria-Hungary

Ottoman Empire

Bulgarian kingdom(since 1915)

The predecessor of this block was Triple Alliance, formed in 1879-1882 as a result of agreements concluded between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. According to the treaty, these countries were obliged to provide support to each other in the event of war, mainly with France. But Italy began to move closer to France and at the beginning of the First World War declared its neutrality, and in 1915 withdrew from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente.

Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war. The Ottoman Empire entered the war in October 1914, Bulgaria in October 1915.

Some countries participated in the war partially, others entered the war already in its final phase. Let's talk about some of the features of individual countries' participation in the war.

Albania

As soon as the war began, the Albanian prince Wilhelm Wied, a German by origin, fled the country to Germany. Albania assumed neutrality, but was occupied by Entente troops (Italy, Serbia, Montenegro). However, by January 1916, most of it (Northern and Central) was occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops. In the occupied territories, with the support of the occupation authorities, the Albanian Legion was created from Albanian volunteers - a military formation consisting of nine infantry battalions and numbering up to 6,000 fighters in its ranks.

Azerbaijan

On May 28, 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed. Soon she concluded a treaty “On Peace and Friendship” with the Ottoman Empire, according to which the latter obliged “ provide assistance with armed force to the government of the Republic of Azerbaijan, if necessary to ensure order and security in the country" And when the armed formations of the Baku Council of People's Commissars began an attack on Elizavetpol, this became the basis for the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic to turn to the Ottoman Empire for military assistance. As a result, the Bolshevik troops were defeated. On September 15, 1918, the Turkish-Azerbaijani army occupied Baku.

M. Diemer "World War I. Air combat"

Arabia

By the beginning of the First World War, it was the main ally of the Ottoman Empire in the Arabian Peninsula.

Libya

The Muslim Sufi religious and political order Senusiya began to wage military operations against the Italian colonialists in Libya back in 1911. Senusia- a Muslim Sufi religious-political order (brotherhood) in Libya and Sudan, founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Great Senussi, Muhammad ibn Ali al-Senussi, and aimed at overcoming the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political unity). By 1914, the Italians controlled only the coast. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Senusites received new allies in the fight against the colonialists - the Ottoman and German empires, with their help, by the end of 1916, Senussia drove the Italians out of most of Libya. In December 1915, Senusite troops invaded British Egypt, where they suffered a crushing defeat.

Poland

With the outbreak of the First World War, Polish nationalist circles in Austria-Hungary put forward the idea of ​​creating a Polish Legion in order to gain the support of the Central Powers and with their help partially resolve the Polish question. As a result, two legions were formed - Eastern (Lviv) and Western (Krakow). The Eastern Legion, after the occupation of Galicia by Russian troops on September 21, 1914, dissolved itself, and the Western Legion was divided into three brigades of legionnaires (each with 5-6 thousand people) and in this form continued to participate in hostilities until 1918.

By August 1915, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians occupied the territory of the entire Kingdom of Poland, and on November 5, 1916, the occupation authorities promulgated the “Act of Two Emperors,” which proclaimed the creation of the Kingdom of Poland - an independent state with a hereditary monarchy and a constitutional system, the boundaries of which were clearly defined were not.

Sudan

By the beginning of the First World War, the Darfur Sultanate was under the protectorate of Great Britain, but the British refused to help Darfur, not wanting to spoil their relations with their Entente ally. As a result, on April 14, 1915, the Sultan officially declared the independence of Darfur. The Darfur Sultan hoped to receive the support of the Ottoman Empire and the Sufi order of Senusiya, with which the Sultanate established a strong alliance. A two-thousand-strong Anglo-Egyptian corps invaded Darfur, the army of the sultanate suffered a number of defeats, and in January 1917 the annexation of the Darfur Sultanate to Sudan was officially announced.

Russian artillery

Neutral countries

The following countries maintained complete or partial neutrality: Albania, Afghanistan, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg (it did not declare war on the Central Powers, although it was occupied by German troops), Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Persia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tibet, Venezuela, Italy (August 3, 1914 - May 23, 1915)

As a result of the war

As a result of the First World War, the Central Powers bloc ceased to exist with defeat in the First World War in the fall of 1918. When signing the truce, they all unconditionally accepted the terms of the victors. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated as a result of the war; states created on the territory of the Russian Empire were forced to seek support from the Entente. Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland retained their independence, the rest were again annexed to Russia (directly to the RSFSR or entered the Soviet Union).

World War I- one of the largest-scale armed conflicts in human history. As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German. The participating countries lost about 12 million people killed (including civilians), and about 55 million were wounded.

F. Roubaud "The First World War. 1915"

First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.
Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and extremely contradictory in modern history. I specifically quoted Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

Opponents in war

The war took place between two groups of countries:

Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.
The following large countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.
This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see approach. British diplomacy came to the fore. She conveyed her position to Germany through the press and secret diplomacy - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910, a reform of the ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in heavy weapons. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are eloquent. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, the capital could not have a name of German origin - “burg”.
Historical reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repulsed the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional troops to Galicia.
y divisions.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

*Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
*No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
Captured - 900 thousand people
Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

*2.5 times in machine guns.
*4.5 times in light artillery.
*40 times in heavy artillery.
It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in eastern Europe, and England and France were calmly mobilizing their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we ourselves were completely exposed.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.


People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

*Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
*Russia loses Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
*Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.
Historical reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies in the Triple Alliance essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

*Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
*The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
*Germany lost all of its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
*For 15 years, Entente troops have been on the left bank of the Rhine.
*By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
* Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
*Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.
The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918