Basic research methods in psychology. Basic research methods in psychology Subjective methods include the method

It is important for us to know a whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can ensure the acquisition of reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon being studied. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that every reader can use them in everyday life.

Psychology methods return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent type of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on just one method, several methods can be created. An indisputable fact is that psychological science does not have any unambiguous set of research methods.

In this lesson we divided psychology methods into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology And methods of practical psychology:

Fundamental (general) psychology engages in psychological research into the general laws of the human psyche, his beliefs, modes of behavior, character traits, and what influences all this. In everyday life, methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for researching, analyzing and predicting human behavior.

Practical (or applied) psychology is aimed at working with specific people, and its methods allow for psychological procedures designed to change the mental state and behavior of the subject.

Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology

Methods of theoretical psychology are those means and techniques through which researchers are able to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and draw up practical recommendations. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, the influence of the environment and upbringing, etc.

Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, scientific research methods are distinguished and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional ones are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.

EXAMPLE: If an employee of an organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.

It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used comprehensively and are “tailored” to each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the task and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. there must be a specific goal. And only after that you need to choose a method.

So, the methods of theoretical psychology.

Observation

In psychology under observation refers to the purposeful perception and recording of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena when using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that became widely used only at the end of the 19th century. It was first used in developmental psychology, as well as educational, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in occupational psychology. Observation is usually used in cases where interfering with the natural process of events is not recommended or impossible.

There are several types of observation:

• Field - in everyday life;
• Laboratory - in special conditions;
• Indirect;
• Direct;
• Included;
• Not included;
• Direct;
• Indirect;
• Solid;
• Selective;
• Systematic;
• Unsystematic.

As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher may disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and fully record the behavior of a person/people. Important features of observation are:

• Impossibility or difficulty of repeated observation;
• Emotional coloring of observation;
• The connection between the observed object and the observer.

  Observation is carried out to identify various behavioral characteristics - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:

• Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
• Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eyes, body position, movement expression, etc.
• Movements of people: distance, manner, features, etc.

  That is, the object of observation is something that can be recorded visually. In this case, the researcher does not observe mental properties, but registers obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about what mental characteristics they are a manifestation of, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about the mental properties of the individual.

  How is observation carried out?

  The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. The most objective conclusions can be drawn if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize the different results. Certain requirements should also be observed during observation:

  • Observations should not influence the natural course of events;
  • It is better to conduct observations on different people, because... there is an opportunity to compare;
  • Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained from previous observations should be taken into account.

  Observation consists of several stages:

  1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
  2. Determining the method of observation;
  3. Selecting a data recording method;
  4. Creating a plan;
  5. Selecting a method for processing results;
  6. Observation;
  7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

  You should also decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance cards). Observation is often confused with experimentation. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

  • The observer does not influence the process;
  • The observer registers exactly what he observes.

  There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies conducting observations according to certain rules and precautions. Examples include the following:

  • If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
  • Researchers must not allow participants to come to harm in any way during the course of the study.
  • Researchers should minimize their intrusion into the privacy of participants.
  • Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

  Every person, even if he is not a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the observation method in order to, if necessary, obtain data regarding any issue.

  EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or club. To make the right choice, you need to identify his predispositions, i.e. what he gravitates towards on his own without outside influence. To do this you need to conduct observation. Look at the child from the outside, what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural affinity for drawing and you can try sending him to an art school. If he likes to disassemble/assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. A constant craving for playing ball suggests that it is worth sending him to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or school teachers to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son is constantly bullying and fighting with boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll him in some kind of martial arts class. If your daughter loves to braid her friends' hair, then she may be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

  There can be a huge number of observation options. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to determine and think through the best ways to make your observations.

  Psychological experiment

  Under experiment in psychology we understand an experiment carried out under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life activity of the subject. During the research process, the scientist changes a certain factor/factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, survey, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

  There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

  • Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
  • Natural - carried out under normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
  • Psychological and pedagogical - when a person/group of people learn something and develop certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
  • Aerobatic - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

  There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

  • Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
  • Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
  • Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

  Organization of the experiment process

  The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being conducted, with whom and under what conditions. Next, a certain relationship must be established between the subject and the scientist, and the subject is given instructions (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained is processed and interpreted.

  An experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

  • Objectivity of the data obtained;
  • Reliability of the data obtained;
  • Validity of the obtained data.

  But, despite the fact that experiment is one of the most respected research methods, it has both pros and cons.

  • Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
  • Possibility of repeated implementation;
  • The ability to change certain factors, thereby influencing the result.

  Cons (according to some experts):

  • The psyche is difficult to study;
  • The psyche is fickle and unique;
  • The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

  For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on data from this method alone in their results and must resort to combination with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, you should also adhere to the APA Code of Ethics.

  It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of certified specialists and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained during independent experiments will be purely subjective. But it is still possible to obtain certain information.

  EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about people's behavior in certain circumstances, see how they will react to something and, perhaps, even understand their train of thought. Model a situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be given: a person was interested in how others would react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in a vehicle. To do this, he took his friend, who was filming what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned his elbows on his neighbor. People's reactions were different: some moved away, some woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, some sat peacefully, offering their shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, a conclusion was drawn: people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is just the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

  When conducting your own personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

  Introspection

  Introspection- this is observation of oneself and the characteristics of one’s behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in psychology and human life. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgot something, but it is not known why). That is why introspection, although an important research method, cannot be the main and independent one in the process of learning the essence of mental manifestations.

  The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on a person’s self-esteem. For example, people with low self-esteem are more predisposed to self-observation. And the consequence of hypertrophied introspection can be self-digging, fixation on wrong actions, feelings of guilt, self-justification, etc.

  Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

  • Keeping personal records (diary);
  • Comparison of self-observation with observations of others;
  • Increased self-esteem;
  • Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

  The use of introspection in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (communicating with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of mindfulness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking about now) and your actions (what you are doing at the moment). Try to analyze what causes certain reactions in you (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). What “hooks” do people and circumstances pull you on? Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just look at what is happening inside you and what contributes to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion about what you should cultivate in yourself and what you should start getting rid of.

  Regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on a person’s inner world and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

  Psychological testing

  Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and deals with the study of psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers when hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn about a person’s personality in more detail, which cannot be done through a conversation or survey.

  The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

  • Validity is the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
  • Reliability - consistency of the results obtained during repeated testing;
  • Reliability is the property of a test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
  • Representativeness - compliance with standards.

  A truly effective test is created through trial and modification (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

  There are different types of tests:

  • Career guidance tests - to determine a person’s predisposition to any type of activity or suitability for a position;
  • Personality tests - to study character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
  • Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
  • Verbal tests - to study a person’s ability to describe actions performed in words;
  • Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

  There are other test options aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometrics, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

  Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to better know yourself or the people you care about.

  EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological, or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But you don’t know what. Find some career guidance tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you had no idea about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you are inclined to do. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something you like. In addition, this is also good because a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, on top of everything else, begins to earn more.

  Psychological testing promotes a deeper understanding of yourself, your needs and abilities, and often indicates the direction for further personal development.

  Biographical method

  Biographical method in psychology is a way by which a person’s life path is examined, diagnosed, corrected and designed. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, a personality is studied in the context of history and prospects for its individual development. This involves obtaining data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

  This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers studying the lives of certain people, and simply in communication between unfamiliar people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compile his psychological portrait.

  EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person he is, what his personality traits are, what his life experiences are, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to the person, let him tell you facts from his biography and some significant moments in his life path. Ask what he can tell you about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills or preparation. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant for both interlocutors.

  Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and an opportunity to see his strengths and weaknesses, as well as imagine a possible perspective of interaction with him.

  Survey

  Survey- a verbal-communicative method, during which interaction occurs between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the subject (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained during the study. As a rule, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, rather than about one person.

  Surveys are divided into:

  • Standardized - strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
  • Non-standardized ones are less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

  In the process of creating surveys, the first step is to formulate program questions that can only be understood by specialists. After this, they are translated into survey questions that are more understandable to the average person.

  Types of surveys:

  • Written allows you to gain superficial knowledge about the problem;
  • Oral - allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than written;
  • Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
  • Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
  • An interview is a personal conversation (also applies to the conversation method).

  When writing questions you need to adhere to some rules:

  • Separateness and conciseness;
  • Exclusion of specific terms;
  • Brevity;
  • Specificity;
  • No hints;
  • Questions require non-standard answers;
  • Questions should not be off-putting;
  • Questions should not suggest anything.

  Depending on the tasks assigned, questions are divided into several types:

  • Open - offering answers in free form;
  • Closed - offering prepared answers;
  • Subjective - about a person’s attitude towards something/someone;
  • Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

  A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to determine the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a specific issue.

  EXAMPLE: You are the director of a company providing any services and you need to find out the opinions of your employees on improving working conditions and attracting more clients. In order to do this as quickly and as efficiently as possible, you can draw up (for example, together with a staff analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve your problems. Namely: to make the work process of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (possibly very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need so that the atmosphere in the team becomes better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all possible methods to improve your business. And thirdly, you will probably be able to identify a promising and promising person from the total mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving the overall performance of the enterprise.

  Surveys and questionnaires are a great way to obtain important and relevant information on current topics from a large number of people.

  Conversation

  Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its goal is to identify a special range of issues that are inaccessible during direct observation. Conversation is widely used in psychological research and has enormous practical significance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

  The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of research. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

  • You need to think through the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
  • Establish contact with the person being studied;
  • Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
  • All questions asked during the conversation must be understandable;
  • Leading questions should not lead to answers;
  • During a conversation, you need to observe the person’s reaction and compare his behavior with his answers;
  • You should remember the content of the conversation so that you can record and analyze it later;
  • Do not take notes during the conversation, because this may cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
  • Pay attention to the “subtext”: omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

  Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the “primary source” and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know your interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives.”

  EXAMPLE: Everyday. You notice that your close friend has been walking around for days with a drooping and dejected look. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual company. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on it. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How to find out what is happening and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to find a moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to have a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: “What happened?” or “Come on, tell me what you have!” Even if you have a good friendly relationship, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise him something. “Turn” the person towards you. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him in any case. Most likely, under your kind pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what’s going on. Almost every person needs other people to take part in their life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and cares. Especially to your friends.

  A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to communicate one-on-one, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about something that, for some reason, you cannot talk about in the hustle and bustle of ordinary affairs.

  The methods of theoretical psychology are far from exhausted here. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

  Part two. Methods of practical psychology

  Methods of practical psychology include methods from the areas that form general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of advisory and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.

  Suggestion

  By suggestion is the process of inserting certain formulas, attitudes, positions or views into the person being studied outside of his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion do not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

  From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect every person, but to varying degrees.

  There are several types of suggestions:

  • Direct - influence using words (orders, commands, instructions);
  • Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, stimuli);
  • Intentional;
  • Unintentional;
  • Positive;
  • Negative.

  There are different methods of suggestion:

  • Techniques of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
  • Techniques of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
  • Techniques of hidden suggestion - providing all options, illusion of choice, truism.

  Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a state of trance. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because... used in the process of education, advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

  EXAMPLE: A widely known example of suggestion is called the “placebo” effect, the phenomenon of improvement in a patient’s condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties, when in fact it is a dummy. You can apply this method in practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a headache remedy - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. That's what it is .

  Reinforcement

  Reinforcements is the instant reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the subject. The reaction must actually be instantaneous, so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that you should continue to do or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

  Reinforcement can be of the following types:

  • Positive - correct behavior/action is reinforced;
  • Negative - wrong behavior/action is prevented;
  • Conscious;
  • Unconscious;
  • Natural - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
  • Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
  • One-time;
  • Systematic;
  • Direct;
  • Indirect;
  • Basic;
  • Secondary;
  • Full;
  • Partial.

  Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, has been present in her since childhood in the process of upbringing and gaining life experience.

  EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are around us at every step: if you put your hand in boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is negative spontaneous reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - positive intentional reinforcement. A child who gets a bad grade at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to give any more bad grades, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time/systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give results - systematic positive reinforcement.

  Psychological consultation

  Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start to work, because... The client does not need any special preparation and the specialist, together with him, can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

  The main problems for which people seek advice from a psychologist are:

  • Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, raising children;
  • Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
  • Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

  Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

  • Contact;
  • Request;
  • Plan;
  • Setting up for work;
  • Implementation;
  • Hometasks;
  • Completion.

  The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution to many life problems and a way out of difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological consultation can be absolutely any life situation that a person cannot cope with on his own. These include problems at work, troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or conditions for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with it alone, and there is no one nearby who could support you, then without a shadow of a doubt and embarrassment, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and psychological assistance centers where experienced, highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

  This concludes our consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and teaching, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space and many others.

  Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it really is. And this presupposes its study in close connection with the surrounding world and the external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality around us is in constant movement and change, its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of a person’s inner world, and the essence of things in general, one should come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

  Nowadays, an incalculable amount of materials for studying psychological science and its features is freely available. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinstein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananyev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychological methods:

  Test your knowledge

  If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

Subjective method.

The subjective method consisted of describing the phenomena of consciousness in the process of self-observation. This method is called "introspection"(from Latin introspectare - I look inside, I peer).

Method of introspection, starting from works R. Descartes(1596 - 1650) and J. Locke(1632 - 1704) and before V. Wundt(1832 - 1920), was a support teachings that human consciousness is cognized fundamentally differently than the external world, cognizable with the help of the senses.

The task of psychology was seen to be to describe the forms of mental life and mental phenomena through internal contemplation of mental images, thoughts, and experiences. At the same time, the change in states of consciousness was explained by the action of a special force of spiritual substance (primary principle).

It was this explanatory position that aroused the greatest criticism, since it excluded an objective, causal explanation of mental processes as products of objective development, as well as raising questions about the origin of the psyche and its mechanisms.

Founder of Positivism O. Comte(1798 - 1857), justifying the need for an objective method in science, opposed metaphysical theories that explain the observed facts of mental life by the action of special substances. He believed that internal observation gives rise to almost as many contradictory opinions as there are people who believe that they are engaged in it.

At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, several theories of the psychology of consciousness were put forward within the framework of introspective psychology. These include

Subjective method. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Subjective method." 2015, 2017-2018.

LECTURE 2.

METHODS OF CLINICAL STUDY OF A PATIENT

All methods of examining a patient are conventionally divided into:

1. Basic:

− subjective method (questioning),

− objective or physical methods (inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation).

The main methods are so named because they are carried out on each patient and only after their application can it be decided what additional methods the patient needs.

2. Additional:

− laboratory methods, i.e. examination of blood, urine, feces, sputum, pleural fluid, bone marrow, vomit, bile, stomach contents, duodenum, study of cytological and histological material, etc.

− instrumental methods using equipment and tools. The simplest instrumental methods are: anthropometry (measurement of height and length of the body, measurement of body weight, waist and hip circumference), thermometry, measurement of blood pressure. However, most instrumental methods can only be performed by trained specialists. These methods include: ultrasound, X-ray, endoscopic and radioisotope methods, functional diagnostic methods (ECG, FVD, etc.), etc.,

− consultations with specialized specialists (ophthalmologist, neurologist, ENT doctor, etc.).

To carry out most of the additional studies, equipment, instruments, reagents, and specially trained personnel (radiologists, laboratory assistants, technicians, etc.) are required. Some additional methods are quite difficult to tolerate by patients or there are contraindications to their implementation. For high-quality performance of additional studies and obtaining reliable results, proper preliminary preparation of the patient, which is carried out by a nurse or paramedic, is of great importance.

Subjective research method

Subjective method (questioning) – first stage of examination .

Meaning of questioning:

− diagnostic,

− allows you to establish a trusting relationship with the patient, as well as identify the patient’s problems associated with the disease.

The method of questioning the patient (anamnestic method) was developed by the Russian therapist of the 20th century, Professor G.A. Zakharyin.

Information about the patient is obtained from his words about sensations, memories of life and illness. If the patient is unconscious, the necessary information is obtained from relatives or accompanying persons.

Questioning is one of the most difficult methods of examining a patient, despite its apparent simplicity. Contact with a patient requires an ethical approach and compliance with the rules of medical deontology.

Approximate the questioning involves identifying only the main complaints and basic data on the development of the disease and is carried out in cases where a quick preliminary diagnosis and provision of medical care are necessary. An indicative questioning of the patient is often limited to the paramedic of the mobile emergency medical team. In all other cases it is carried out detailed questioning according to the generally accepted scheme (components of the questioning):

− general information about the patient (passport data, i.e. patient’s full name, year of birth, residential address, profession, place of work and position);

− the patient’s complaints are major and minor;

− Anamnesis morbi (Anamnesis – memory, history; morbus – disease) – data on the development of the underlying disease;

− Anamnesis vitae (vita – life) – data about the patient’s life.

Usually, at the beginning of the questioning, the patient is given the opportunity to speak freely about what brought him to the doctor. To do this, ask a general question: “What are you complaining about?” or “What is bothering you?” Next, a targeted questioning is carried out, each complaint is clarified and specified. Questions should be simple and clear, adapted to the level of general development of the patient. The conversation is conducted in a calm environment, preferably alone with the patient. The patient's complaints that forced him to seek medical help, i.e. those that the patient puts first are called main(major, they are usually associated with the underlying disease). After a detailed description of the main complaints, they move on to identifying additional(minor) complaints that the patient forgot to mention or did not pay attention to. It is also important to distinguish between current complaints and complaints that arise periodically.

Anamnesis morbi collection usually begins with the question: “When did you get sick?” or “When did you feel sick?” Anamnesis morbi gives an idea of ​​all stages of the disease:

a) onset of the disease - from what time does he consider himself sick, how did the disease begin (with what symptoms, acute or gradual), what was the cause of the disease, according to the patient;

b) the dynamics of the disease - how the disease developed, the frequency and cause of exacerbations, hospital stay, sanatoriums, what studies were carried out and what their results were, what treatment was carried out (independently and as prescribed by a doctor) and its effectiveness;

c) the leading reason for visiting a doctor; the last deterioration for which the patient came in (what it was expressed in, the reason for the visit).

The patient's life story represents his medical biography. The main goal is to find out the influence of the patient’s living conditions on the occurrence and course of the disease, to get an idea of ​​the presence of a hereditary predisposition to certain diseases. The significance of Anamnesis vitae is to identify risk factors for the disease, i.e. factors that negatively affect health, cause pathological changes in the body and can contribute to the development of the disease or provoke its exacerbation. The most significant and common risk factors are: poor diet, obesity, bad habits (alcohol abuse, smoking, drug use and other chemicals), stress, heredity, occupational hazards, etc.

In order to identify risk factors, the patient is consistently asked about childhood, the nature and conditions of production activity, life, nutrition, bad habits, previous diseases, operations and injuries, hereditary predisposition, gynecological (in women), allergic and epidemiological history (contacts with infectious diseases). patients, invasive research methods, visiting areas with unfavorable infectious and epidemiological conditions, etc.).

In the process of questioning, not only the paramedic collects information about the patient, but the patient also gets to know the paramedic, gets an idea about him, about his qualifications, attentiveness, and responsiveness. Therefore, the paramedic must remember the principles of medical deontology, monitor his appearance, speech culture, be tactful, and take into account the individual characteristics of the patient.

The results of the patient’s questioning are described in the medical history according to plan in the form of a professional interpretation of the “patient’s words.”

Related information.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

ü Oral survey, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject.

ü Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire.

ü Free poll - a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. Natural the experiment is organized and carried out in normal life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are.

Simulation. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods

Summary

Methodological foundations of human studies. General principles of knowledge of the world. B. G. Ananyev’s approach to the study of man as a biosocial being. The concepts of “individual”, “subject of activity”, “personality”. Primary and secondary properties of a person as an individual. General personality characteristics. Distinctive features of a person as a subject of activity. The concepts of “consciousness” and “activity”.

Sciences about man and humanity. Studies of man as a biological species, works of K. Linnaeus. General idea of ​​anthropology. Psychological aspects of the study of man as a biological species: comparative psychology, zoopsychology, general psychology. General problems of studying the transition of man from an animal to the social world. Sciences that study human sociogenesis. Sciences that study the interaction of man with nature. General problems of studying man as an individual and his ontogenesis.

Psychology as a science. Psychology as a humanities science. Everyday and scientific psychological knowledge. The meaning of the term "psychology". Psychology as a spider about the psyche and mental phenomena. Subject of psychology. Classification of mental phenomena: mental processes, mental states, mental properties. Mental processes: cognitive, emotional, volitional. Mental states as a characteristic of the general state of the psyche. Main characteristics of mental states: duration, direction, stability, intensity. Mental properties of the individual: orientation, temperament, abilities, character.

Basic methods of psychological research. General understanding of scientific research methods. The main groups of psychological methods: objective and subjective. Basic subjective methods of psychology: observation, participant observation, self-observation, survey (written, oral, free). Subjective methods for quantitative assessment of mental phenomena. Basic principles of psychological tests. History of test creation. Projective tests and experiment (laboratory, natural). General understanding of modeling methods.

1.1. Methodological foundations of human studies

How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.

A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely understandable from a scientific point of view. To implement this approach, it is necessary to have a general understanding of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists are not

Names

Ananyev Boris Gerasimovich(1907-1972) - an outstanding Russian psychologist. He began his scientific activity as a graduate student at the Brain Institute during the lifetime of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1968-1972 was the dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University. He is the founder of the Leningrad psychological school. Author of fundamental works in the field of sensory perception, communication psychology, educational psychology. He proposed a system of human knowledge, in which data from various human sciences were integrated.

made one attempt to formulate a holistic idea of ​​​​a person. Of course, this idea also exists in psychology.

One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by B. G. Ananyev. Assessing the significance of Ananyev’s work for Russian science, it is first of all necessary to emphasize that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to identify new sections of psychology that previously did not exist as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Speaking about the main features of the development of scientific knowledge about man, Ananyev noted that the problem of man is becoming a common problem for all science as a whole. At the same time, the scientific knowledge of man is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines, and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of human research. Modern science is more and more interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.

Ananyev identified four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality And individuality.

The concept of “individual” has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of a speciesHomo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to designate a person as an individual representative of the human community, as a social being who uses tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied.

A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1.1). Ananyev identified the primary and secondary properties of an individual. He considered primary properties inherent in all people, such as age-related characteristics (compliance with a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain gender), as well as individual-typical characteristics, including constitutional characteristics (features of body composition), neurodynamic

14 Part I. Introduction to General Psychology

Rice. 1.1. The structure of the concept “individual” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 1 5

properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The set of primary properties of an individual determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of a person’s temperament and inclinations.

Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is “personality”. This concept, like the concept of “individual,” has various interpretations. In particular, personality is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, formed in joint activity and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality characterizes a person as a social being”(Fig. 1.2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.

Rice. 1.2. The structure of the concept - “personality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The next concept that Ananyev singled out when studying man was “subject of activity.” This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.

Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of “subject” as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of “object”. The object and the subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal towards which the activity of a person - the subject of influence - is directed. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or encounters phenomena of the real world. Depending on what or who its activity is directed at, one or another object can act as an object. The object can be human activity itself.

16

Rice. 1.3. The structure of the concept of “subject of activity” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The main feature of man as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness (Fig. 1.3). Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a consequence, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, a subject is an individual as a bearer of consciousness with the ability to act. So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative

living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. The combination of these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality

Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and uniqueness. A prerequisite for the formation of human individuality are anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed by the process of education, which has a socially determined character. The variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variety of manifestations of individuality.

Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.

1.2. Sciences about man and humanity

Modern science, firstly, studies man as a representative of a biological species; secondly, he is considered as a member of society; thirdly, the objective activity of a person is studied; fourthly, the patterns of development of a particular person are studied.

Chapter 1 . Subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 1 7

Rice. 1.4. The structure of the concept of “individuality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The beginning of the targeted study of man as a biological species can be considered the works of Carl Linnaeus, who identified him as an independent species of Homo sapiens in the order of primates. Thus, the place of man in living nature was determined for the first time. This does not mean that the person was not previously of interest to researchers. Scientific knowledge of man originates in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine. However, these studies were narrow-profile, insufficiently systematized, and most importantly, contradictory in nature, and in them man was most often contrasted with living nature. K. Linnaeus proposed to consider man as an element of living nature. And this was a kind of turning point in the study of man.

Anthropology is a special science about man as a special biological species. The structure of modern anthropology includes three main sections: human morphology(study of individual variability of physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to old age inclusive, sexual dimorphism, changes in human physical development under the influence of various living conditions and activities), the doctrine of anthropogenesis(on the changing nature of man's closest ancestor and man himself during the Quaternary period), consisting of primate science, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (the study of human fossil forms) and racial studies.

In addition to anthropology, there are other related sciences that study humans as a biological species. For example, the physical type of Man as his general somatic organization is studied by such natural sciences as human anatomy and physiology, biophysics and biochemistry, psychophysiology, and neuropsychology. Medicine, which includes numerous sections, occupies a special place in this series.

The doctrine of anthropogenesis - the origin and development of man - is also associated with the sciences that study biological evolution on Earth, since human nature cannot be understood outside the general and consistently developing process of evolution of the animal world. This group of sciences may include paleontology, embryology, as well as comparative physiology and comparative biochemistry.

18 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

It must be emphasized that private disciplines played an important role in the development of the doctrine of anthropogenesis. These include, first of all, the physiology of higher nervous activity. Thanks to AND. P. Pavlov, who showed great interest in some genetic problems of higher nervous activity, the most developed department of comparative physiology was the physiology of higher nervous activity of anthropoids.

Comparative psychology, which combines animal psychology and general human psychology, plays a huge role in understanding the development of man as a biological species. Experimental studies of primates in zoopsychology began with the scientific works of such scientists as V. Koehler and N. N. Ladygina-Kots. Thanks to the successes of animal psychology, many mechanisms of human behavior and patterns of mental development have become clear.

There are sciences that are directly related to the doctrine of anthropogenesis, but play a significant role in its development. These include genetics and archaeology. Special place is occupied by paleolinguistics, which studies the origin of language, its sound means and control mechanisms. The origin of language is one of the central moments of sociogenesis, and the origin of speech is the central moment of anthropogenesis, since articulate speech is one;

of the main differences between humans and animals.

In connection with the fact that we touched upon the problems of sociogenesis, we should note the social sciences, which are most closely related to the problem of anthropogenesis. These include paleosociology, which studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture.

Thus, man, as a representative of a biological species, is the object of study of many sciences, including psychology. In Fig. 1.5 presents B. G. Ananyev’s classification of the main problems and sciences about Homo sapiens . Anthropology occupies a central place among the sciences that study the origin and development of man as an independent biological species. The main conclusion that allows us to draw the current state of anthropology in relation to human development can be formulated as follows: at some stage of biological development, man was separated from the animal world (the borderline stage of “anthropogenesis-sociogenesis”) and the action of natural selection ceased in human evolution , based on the biological expediency and survival of the individuals and species most adapted to the natural environment. With the transition of man from the animal world to the social world, with his transformation into a biosocial being, the laws of natural selection were replaced by qualitatively different laws of development.

The question of why and how man’s transition from the animal to the social world occurred is central to the sciences studying anthropogenesis, and to date there is no clear answer to it. There are several points of view on this problem. One of them is based on the following assumption: as a result of mutation, the human brain turned into a superbrain, which allowed man to stand out from the animal world and create a society. This point of view is shared by P. Chauchard. According to this point of view, in historical times the organic development of the brain is impossible due to its mutational origin.

There is another point of view, which is based on the assumption that the organic development of the brain and the development of man as a species led to quality

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 19

Rice. 1.5. Sciences that study man as a biological object

natural structural changes in the brain, after which development began to be carried out according to other laws that differed from the laws of natural selection. But just because the body and brain remain essentially the same doesn't mean no development occurs. Research by I. A. Stankevich indicates that structural changes occur in the human brain, progressive development of various parts of the hemisphere, separation of new convolutions, and formation of new sulci are observed. Therefore, the question of whether a person will change can be answered in the affirmative. However, these evolutionary changes are mainly

20 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

will relate to the social conditions of human life and his personal development, and biological changes of the type Homosapiens will be of secondary importance*.

Thus, man as a social being, as a member of society, is no less interesting for science, since the modern development of man as a species Homosapiens is no longer carried out according to the laws of biological survival, but according to the laws of social development.

The problem of sociogenesis cannot be considered outside the social sciences. The list of these sciences is very long. They can be divided into several groups depending on the phenomena they study or are associated with. For example, sciences related to art, technological progress, and education.

In turn, according to the degree of generalization of the approach to the study of human society, these sciences can be divided into two groups: sciences that consider the development of society as a whole, in the interaction of all its elements, and sciences that study individual aspects of the development of human society. From the point of view of this classification of sciences, humanity is a holistic entity, developing according to its own laws, and at the same time a multitude of individual people. Therefore, all social sciences can be classified either as sciences about human society, or as sciences about man as an element of society. It should be borne in mind that in this classification there is not a sufficiently clear line between different sciences, since many social sciences can be associated both with the study of society as a whole and with the study of an individual person.

Ananiev believes that the system of sciences about humanity (human society) as an integral phenomenon should include sciences about the productive forces of society, sciences about the settlement and composition of humanity, sciences about production and social relations, about culture, art and science itself as a system of knowledge, science about the forms of society at various stages of its development.

It is necessary to highlight the sciences that study the interaction of man with nature and humanity with the natural environment. An interesting point of view was held on this issue by V.I. Vernadsky, the creator of the biogeochemical doctrine, in which he identified two opposing biogeochemical functions that interact and are associated with the history of free oxygen - the O 2 molecule. These are the functions of oxidation and reduction. On the one hand, they are associated with ensuring respiration and reproduction, and on the other, with the destruction of dead organisms. As Vernadsky believes, man and humanity are inextricably linked with the biosphere - a certain part of the planet on which they live, since they are geologically naturally connected with the material and energy structure of the Earth.

Man is inseparable from nature, but unlike animals, he has activity aimed at transforming the natural environment in order to ensure optimal conditions of life and activity. In this case we are talking about the emergence of the noosphere.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 21

The concept of “noosphere” was introduced by Le Roy together with Teilhard de Chardin in 1927. They were based on the biogeochemical theory outlined by Vernadsky in 1922-1923. at the Sorbonne. According to Vernadsky's definition, the noosphere, or “thinking layer,” is a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In it, for the first time, man appears as the largest geological force capable of transforming the planet.

There are sciences whose subject of study is a specific person. This category may include the sciences of ontogenesis - the process of development of the individual organism. Within the framework of this direction, gender, age, constitutional and neurodynamic characteristics of a person are studied. In addition, there are sciences about personality and its life path, within the framework of which the motives of a person’s activities, his worldview and value orientations, and relationships with the outside world are studied.

It should be borne in mind that all sciences or scientific directions that study man are closely interconnected and together give a holistic picture of man and human society.

However, no matter which direction is considered, various branches of psychology are represented in it to one degree or another. This is not accidental, since the phenomena that psychology studies largely determine the activities of man as a biosocial being.

Thus, a person is a multifaceted phenomenon. His research must be holistic. Therefore, it is no coincidence that one of the main methodological concepts used to study humans is the concept of a systems approach. It reflects the systematic nature of the world order. In accordance with this concept, any system exists because there is a system-forming factor. In the system of sciences that study man, such a factor is the man himself, and it is necessary to study it in all its diversity of manifestations and connections with the outside world, since only in this case can one obtain a complete understanding of man and the patterns of his social and biological development. In Fig. Figure 1.6 shows a diagram of the structural organization of a person, as well as his internal and external relationships.

1.3. Psychology as a science

When dividing sciences into groups based on the subject of study, natural sciences, humanities and technical sciences are distinguished. The first study nature, the second - society, culture and history, the third are associated with the study and creation of means of production and tools. Man is a social being, and all his mental phenomena are largely socially conditioned, which is why psychology is usually classified as a humanitarian discipline.

The concept of “psychology” has both scientific and everyday meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the corresponding scientific discipline, in the second - to describe the behavior or mental characteristics of individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, every person becomes acquainted with “psychology” long before its systematic study.

Already in early childhood, the child says “I want”, “I think”, “I feel”. These words indicate that the little man, without realizing what he is doing, is exploring his inner world. Throughout life, every person, consciously or unconsciously, studies himself and his capabilities. It should be noted that the level of knowledge of one’s inner world largely determines how much a person can understand other people, how successfully he can build relationships with them.

Man is a social being, and he cannot live outside of society, without contact with others. In the practice of live communication, each person comprehends many psychological laws. Thus, each of us, since childhood, has been able to “read” the emotional state of another person by external manifestations - facial expressions, gestures, intonation, behavioral characteristics. Thus, every person is a kind of psychologist, since it is impossible to live in society without certain ideas about the human psyche.

However, everyday psychological knowledge is very approximate, vague and differs in many ways from scientific knowledge. What is this difference (Fig. 1.7)?

Firstly, everyday psychological knowledge is specific, tied to specific situations, people, and tasks. Scientific psychology strives for generalization, for which appropriate concepts are used.

Secondly, everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive. This is due to the way they were obtained - random experience and its subjective analysis on an unconscious level. In contrast, scientific knowledge is based on experiment, and the acquired knowledge is completely rational and conscious.

Third, there are differences in the way knowledge is transferred. As a rule, knowledge of everyday psychology is transferred with great difficulty, and often this transfer is simply impossible. As Yu. B. Gippenreiter writes, “the eternal problem of “fathers and sons” is precisely that children cannot and do not even want to adopt the experience of their fathers.” At the same time, in science, knowledge is accumulated and transferred much more easily.

Chapter 1 . Subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 23

Rice. 1.7. The main differences between everyday and scientific psychological knowledge

Fourthly, scientific psychology has extensive, varied and sometimes unique factual material that is not available in its entirety to any representative of everyday psychology.

So what is psychology as a science?

The word “psychology” translated from ancient Greek literally means “the science of the soul” (psyche"soul", logos -"concept", "teaching"). The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the XVII -XI X centuries. the area studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Thus, Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. What is the subject of studying psychology in our time?

24 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. It should be noted that there are different points of view on the structure of mental phenomena. For example, certain mental phenomena, depending on the author of the position, can be classified into different structural groups. Moreover, very often in scientific literature one can encounter a confusion of concepts. Thus, some authors do not separate the characteristics of mental processes and mental properties of the individual. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states And mental properties of personality(Fig. 1.8).

Mental processes act as primary regulators of human behavior. Mental processes have a definite beginning, course and end, that is, they have certain dynamic characteristics, which, first of all, include parameters that determine the duration and stability of the mental process. On the basis of mental processes, certain states are formed, knowledge, skills and abilities are formed. In turn, mental processes can be divided into three groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional.

TO cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include sensation, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech and attention. Thanks to these processes, a person receives information about the world around him and about himself. However, information or knowledge itself does not play any role for a person if it is not significant for him. You've probably noticed that some events remain in your memory for a long time, while others you forget the next day. Other information may go completely unnoticed by you. This is due to the fact that any information may or may not have an emotional connotation, i.e. it may be significant or not significant. Therefore, along with cognitive mental processes, they distinguish as independent ones emotional mental processes. Within this group of mental processes, mental phenomena such as affects, emotions, feelings, moods and emotional stress are considered.

We have the right to believe that if a certain event or phenomenon evokes positive emotions in a person, then this has a beneficial effect on his activity or condition, and, conversely, negative emotions complicate the activity and worsen the person’s condition. Nevertheless, there are exceptions. For example, an event that causes negative emotions increases a person’s activity and stimulates him to overcome the obstacles that have arisen. Such a reaction indicates that for the formation of human behavior, not only emotional, but also volitional mental processes, which are most clearly manifested in situations related to decision-making, overcoming difficulties, managing one’s behavior, etc.

Sometimes another group of mental processes is identified as an independent one - unconscious processes. It includes those processes that occur or are carried out outside the control of consciousness.

Mental processes are closely interconnected and act as primary factors in the formation of human mental states. Psi-

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 25

chemical conditions characterize the state of the psyche as a whole. They, like mental processes, have their own dynamics, which are characterized by duration, direction, stability and intensity. At the same time, mental states influence the course and outcome of mental processes and can promote or inhibit activity. Mental states include such phenomena as elation, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency. It should be noted that mental states can be extremely complex phenomena that have objective and subjective conditioning, but their characteristic common feature is dynamism. The exception is mental states caused by dominant personality characteristics, including pathocharacterological features. Such states can be very stable mental phenomena that characterize a person’s personality.

The next class of mental phenomena - the mental properties of a person - is characterized by greater stability and greater constancy. Under mental properties personality, it is customary to understand the most essential characteristics of a person, providing a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character. The level of development of these properties, as well as the peculiarities of the development of mental processes and the prevailing (most characteristic of a person) mental states determine the uniqueness of a person, his individuality.

26 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups of collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology. We will consider only a brief description of such mental phenomena.

All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena in groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.

Collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in regulating the existence of a collective or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relationships, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. Mental states of a group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closedness of the group , panic, etc. The most significant mental properties of a group include organization, leadership style, and efficiency

Thus, the subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one specific person and mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives. In turn, the task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena. Describing the task of psychology, S. L. Rubinstein writes: “Psychological cognition is an indirect cognition of the mental through the disclosure of its essential, objective connections”*.

1.4. Basic methods

psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the techniques and means by which information necessary for making practical recommendations and constructing scientific theories is obtained. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable And are valid. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective And objective(Fig. 1.9).

* Rubinshtein S. L.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 27

Need to know

Validity and reliability of the psychodiagnostic test

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

28 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Rice. 1.9. Basic methods of psychological research

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 29

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, the method is widely used participant observation. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place. Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Self-observation, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation or stop altogether. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective. Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

Nevertheless, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When confronted in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist seeks to understand its psychological content. In most cases, he turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings. In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Its characteristic feature is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the method of self-observation is very often used in conjunction with the method survey.

A survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral survey, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

Free poll - a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When questioning this

30 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Need to know

Moral principles of the activity of a psychologist

type, you can change the tactics and content of the study quite flexibly, which allows you to obtain a variety of information about the subject. At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information obtained about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

Having examined the survey method, we came close to the problem of the accuracy of measuring the information received, as well as quantitative and qualitative characteristics in psychology. On the one hand, this problem is closely related to the problem of objectivity of the study. Psychologists have long asked themselves the question: “How can one prove that an observed phenomenon is not accidental or that it objectively exists?” In the process of the formation and development of psychology, a methodology was determined to confirm the objectivity of the experimental results. For example, such confirmation could be the replication of results in studies with other subjects under similar conditions. And the greater the number of matches, the higher the probability of the existence of the detected phenomenon. On the other hand, this problem is related to the problem of comparing

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 31

Need to know

visibility of results. How to compare the severity of a certain psychological characteristic in different people?

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made starting from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science. But even earlier, in 1835, the book “Social Physics” by the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet (1796-1874) was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of human behavior to certain patterns. Analyzing statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​that provide a quantitative description of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc. These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Quetelet was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, it introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there must be a reality comparable to the physical one, making it possible to predict various phenomena

32 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857-1927)- Russian

physiologist, neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist. Based on the reflex concept of mental activity put forward by I.M. Sechenov, he developed a natural science theory of behavior, which was initially called objective psychology (1904), then psychoreflexology (1910), and later reflexology (1917). Bekhterev made a significant contribution to the development of experimental psychology. He was the creator of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia, which was opened in 1885 at the clinic of Kazan University. Later, in 1908, Bekhterev founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which currently bears his name.

(including psychological) based on statistical laws. To understand these laws, it is hopeless to study each person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variation statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws connecting the strength of a person’s sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body. These include the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, and Stevens laws, which are mathematical formulas that help determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of research and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences. The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that make it possible to repeatedly carry out the same type of research, i.e., it required solving the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main meaning of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e., regardless of external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristics.

These psychological methods include tests. This method is used most often. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare research results, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems. Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 33

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London). Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, in whom, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical problems of life. This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”.

This term entered the lexicon of scientists after the publication of an article by D. Cattell (1860-1944) « MentalTestsandMeasurements »("Mental Tests and Measurements") in 1890 in the magazine Mind with Galton's afterword. “Psychology,” Cattell writes in this article, “cannot become as solid and precise as the physical sciences unless it is based on experiment and measurement. A step in this direction can be taken by applying a series of mental tests to a large number of people. The results may have significant scientific value in revealing the constancy of mental processes, their interdependence and changes in different circumstances."

In 1905, the French psychologist A. Binet created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the 20th century. The French government commissioned Binet to compile a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it to correctly distribute schoolchildren according to levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them. Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of an activity and those structures thanks to which the subject copes with tests.

34 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread. At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have the same military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's largest psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of using psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began working in this direction. Under Yerkes' leadership, the first group tests were created to mass assess the suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta test for illiterate people. The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of nonverbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined. The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and who were subject to assignment to the appropriate military educational institutions. The three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the population under study.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia. The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

A particularly notable contribution to the development of test methods was made by G. I. Rossolimo, who was known not only as a neurologist, but also as a psychologist. To diagnose individual mental properties, he developed a method for their quantitative assessment, which gives a holistic picture of the personality. The technique made it possible to evaluate 11 mental processes, which in turn were divided into five groups: attention, receptivity, will, memorization, associative processes (imagination and thinking). For each of these processes, tasks were proposed, depending on the completion of which the “strength” of each process was assessed on a special scale. The sum of positive responses was marked with a dot on the graph. Connecting these dots gave a “psychological profile” of a person. The tasks varied according to the categories of subjects (for children, for intelligent adults, for non-intelligent adults). In addition, Rossolimo proposed a formula for converting graphic data into arithmetic data.

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. However, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the subjects' self-report, for example, questionnaire tests. When executing data tests the test taker can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are also more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests. This category of tests does not use self-reports from subjects. They assume a free interpretation of the research.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 35

the teacher of the tasks performed by the test subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche. However, tests of the projective type place increased demands on the level of professional training and practical experience of the psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. They differ from each other in the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are. One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of methods modeling. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

36 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs work. This led to attempts to imagine and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer. In connection with these studies, the names of American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena. For example, conversation - survey option. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject. Another method is

method of studying documents, or analysis of human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the complex application of various methods.

Control questions

1. Tell us about the main structural elements of B. G. Ananyev’s approach to the study of man: the individual, the subject of activity, personality, individuality.

2. Characterize the primary and secondary properties of a person as an individual.

3. Explain why the concept of “personality” refers only to humans and cannot apply to representatives of the animal world.

4. Describe the basic properties of a person as a subject of activity.

5. Explain the essence of the concept of “individuality”.

6. Tell us about modern sciences that study humans biologically! view.

7. What do you know about research into the problems of anthropogenesis and human sociogenesis?

8. Tell us about the relationship between man and nature. What are the main ideas embedded in the biogeochemical theory of V.I. Vernadsky?

9. Define psychology as a science.

10 What are the differences between scientific and everyday psychology?

11. What is the subject of psychology? Give a classification of mental phenomena.

12. What mental processes do you know?

13. What is the main difference between mental states and mental processes?

14. Name the main personality traits.

15. What methods of psychological research do you know?

16. What is a test? What tests are there?

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods37

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General fundamentals of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M.: Vlados 1998.

13. Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilova, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B. M. Teplova. - Ed. 3rd, revised and additional - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1948.

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Politizdat, 1990.

15. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

16. Semenov Yu. I. How did humanity arise? - M.: Nauka, 1966.

17. Smirnov A. A. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes - M., 1987.

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Vol. 6. - M.: Progress, 1978.

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