The main and intermediate sides of the horizon. Methods for determining the sides of the horizon Sides of the horizon in the form of a diagram

The information necessary for navigation on any terrain consists of three elements: distances, directions and landmarks (various objects on the ground). Encyclopedias give the following definition of the horizon: it is the line visible to the eye along which the sky borders the surface of the earth.

In the navy, the sea horizon is defined a little differently. Since ancient times, the fleet had its own navigation and some of its own definitions. In the maritime encyclopedia, the sea horizon is the line connecting the sky and the water surface. The gaze (sighting ray) directed towards this line is in the center of the visible water circle.

How to navigate in an unfamiliar place

Landmarks can be any clearly visible objects that stand out in some way against the general background. It can be a massive stone or rock on a flat surface. In the forest, a tree can serve as such a landmark; accordingly, it should somehow stand out against the general background and catch the eye, so that it is easier to remember.

What is a horizon? Regardless of where on the planet a person is, there is always space around him: a really visible circle - it is the horizon line.

People have discovered several particularly prominent points on this circle. They noticed that the stars in the sky were moving in a circle, and one of them seemed to be standing in one place above the horizon. This is the North Star. Next, people paid attention to the property of some magnetized objects that are in a suspended state - they always turn with one end in its direction. And gradually four main points (horizon directions) were outlined on the horizon circle - north, south, west, east. These names of the cardinal directions are still relevant today.

Determining the sides of the horizon

With the help of the North Star or specially magnetized objects (compass, astrolabe), people can, anywhere on the planet, determine the north direction, and then, facing it, find the other main directions on the sides of their body: behind - south, to the right - east, left - west.

Angle to horizon and degrees

Each quarter of the horizon's circumference contains 90 degrees. The horizon plane is divided into small equal segments in the amount of 360 pieces - can be compared with the approximate number of days in a year. Each of these segments was called the word “degree” and received a personal serial number - from 1 to 360.

Degrees are counted from a certain place - this is the point on the horizon located under the North Star. From there, the countdown is to the right (clockwise).

The definition of an angle is as follows: it is formed by two rays emanating from the same point (this is a middle school math course). Each degree of a circle is a certain angle.

Azimuth of the main sides of the horizon

A simple geometric angle has two arbitrary rays. This means that they can be directed in any direction in space. And the azimuth has a special beam - it is directed in a single direction, to the north. As you know, in geometry, internal angles have a maximum value of up to 180 degrees, but the azimuth can be greater, that is, 0-360 degrees.

It follows from this that azimuth is the angle formed by two rays, one of them is directed to the north, the second is directed to a landmark. The azimuth of the main sides of the horizon is measured in degrees and counted clockwise from zero.

Measuring azimuth on the ground

Now a little about the directions of light. The horizon line is marked not only by four main points (these are rays directed from the center - north, south, west, east), but also by intermediate points - located in the middle and located between the two main ones. For example, an intermediate direction is drawn between north and east at an angle of 45 degrees. It is designated as northeast. Exactly the same direction is built in each quarter of the circle. In this way, an “azimuth ring” is obtained; directions of 22.5 degrees are also marked on it, playing an auxiliary role. They are designated as northeast-east, north-northeast, etc.

An experienced traveler can easily determine the northern direction in any weather and at any time of the day. Then it will be easy for him to find the right direction even without a compass. This will require a good knowledge of the azimuth ring.

Azimuth is an angle that can be measured or plotted. It is easy to draw it with a pencil on paper, and also measure it on the ground with a sighting beam (with your gaze). It is convenient to measure and plot azimuths on a map or in a simple notebook with a simple protractor. To do this, you should designate the center point, the sides of the horizon. Next, if necessary, draw right angles between them. Mark the desired visible point on the drawing and use a compass to move from it at an angle to the horizon, to the north point. The resulting angle is called azimuth.

On a regular map there are many vertical lines - these are the eastern and western edges of the frame and rectangular coordinate lines pointing north. But the vertical lines of the grid are sometimes not completely parallel to the frames of the map - they form a certain angle. It is not very large and therefore is usually not taken into account.

For example, you need to measure the azimuth of a route line from point A to point B. The center of the protractor (zero point) is placed on point A, one of its axes is rotated so that it is parallel to the vertical lines of the map, then the degrees from the point are read off on the degree scale of the protractor A to point B.

Compasses

Compasses have different designs. The most widespread is the compass, which was designed in the 19th century by the Russian topographer Pyotr Adrianov. Its name is appropriate - Adrianov's compass. In those days, compasses were made of brass; today they are made of plastic.

Adrianov's compass has five components: a body, a sighting ring, a dial, a magnetic needle and a clip.

The round body connects and secures all parts of the structure. A short steel needle is inserted into its center, and an arrow is attached to it. There are two slots on the side, through which a strap is passed, which is tightened on the hand like a watch. Sometimes a lanyard is attached to carry the compass around the neck. At the top there is a groove with brass springs, with their help the sighting ring is attached to the body and rotates.

Glass is inserted into the sighting ring; along its upper edge there are two protrusions - a front sight and a peephole. Under them, on the inside, there are two triangular protrusions, which are coated with a special composition that glows in the dark. These protrusions are indicators and when the ring is turned, they show a reading in degrees on the compass scale.

The main part of the compass is the magnetized needle. It is cut from a steel plate. The end of the arrow pointing north is also coated with a glow-in-the-dark compound. In order for the arrow to rotate easily on the needle, a small lens is located in its center, which reduces the braking effect of the rotating parts. There is a cone-shaped recess on the bottom side, with which the arrow rests on the needle, which ensures rotation in a circle.

The limb is a white ring with divisions. It looks like an azimuthal ring. There is one long stroke on it, which is covered with a luminous composition - this is the beginning of the countdown of divisions. There are also three dots that also glow in the dark; above them there are letters indicating the cardinal directions. Each compass division is equal to three degrees.

The clamp is a springy metal plate bent in half. When it moves out through a gap in the body, the ends of the plate are compressed, freeing the compass needle, and it “sits” on the needle with its lens. When the clamp is pushed inside the compass, the petals of the spring straighten, removing the arrow from the needle and pressing it against the glass. In this position, the compass is closed and the arrow does not function.

Modern types of compasses

Now almost all tourists use a sports liquid compass; it is more convenient and easier to work with. Its arrow is located in a special capsule, which is filled with liquid. It allows the needle to point north within a few seconds. There are a large number of different models of sports compasses; their dial has a more accurate division value - up to 2 degrees. The capsule is located directly on the compass board, which has a measuring ruler. On the board itself, as well as on the capsule, there are parallel lines that greatly simplify working with cards.

Modern compasses can be worn on the wrist, as well as around the neck using a lanyard. Their bulb and board are made of impact-resistant materials; they work well in different climatic conditions.

Rules for handling a compass

It is necessary to protect the device from shock, especially for liquid products. Their body is made in the form of a plate, therefore, very fragile. You should also avoid placing the compass close to metal objects - this will negatively affect the magnetic needle. When not in use, the compass should be worn on your hand or neck, or simply put in your pocket.

Rules for working with a compass

There are four types of compass actions:

It follows from this that two options are possible:

1. There is no complete overview of the area, but there is a magnetic azimuth of the desired target (taken from the map).
2. There is an overview of the area and the landmark is visible. Let's say a person stands on a hill, surrounded by forest, and knows that when he starts moving, the target will disappear from his sight for a long time. And then he will have to go his way along azimuth (straight lines).

In the first version, the azimuth is obtained from the map, in the second - by sighting on the target.

Adrianov's compass: straight serif

1. The front sight indicator is set to the dial division that corresponds to the desired azimuth.
2. The compass needle opens, and the dial is oriented along it, that is, the zero line of the dial is brought under the northern end of the needle by rotating the body.
3. Sighting (squinting the eye) - you need to look at the front sight through the slot of the eye, then the eye notices in the distance a certain object that has fallen on the front sight (passage landmark).
4. Now a check is made to see whether steps 2 and 3 have been completed correctly. The compass position does not change, then the arrow closes.

The straight line is determined, and at the same time the approximate distance to the horizon is calculated. After this, you can head to the entrance landmark; here it is important not to lose it. For example, in a forest, the sighting beam (gaze) rests on a certain tree, which is taken as a landmark. It should be remembered well and not confused with others. You need to choose distant objects as such landmarks, because, having reached them, you will again need to repeat the straight line. This operation takes a lot of time.

Determination of azimuth to a visible landmark - resection

1. The compass needle opens, then the dial is approximately (approximately) adjusted according to the arrow. The front sight is also approximately aimed at a landmark by rotating the sighting ring.
2. Next, the dial is fixed along the arrow and precisely adjusted to the front sight landmark.
3. Next, the nullstroke is checked; if it has gone astray from the northern end, then the second action is repeated.
4. The dial is counted down and the needle closes.

Forward and backward serifs on a liquid compass

1. The compass is placed on the map so that its side edge touches the final and starting points of movement.
2. The rotating part of the compass is rotated so that the marks are parallel to the magnetic meridian on the map. The double risk should face north.
3. Next, the card is removed. The body is held horizontally and rotated so that the north end of the frog is located on the body between the double notch. In this position, the centerline of the plate will indicate the direction of movement. There is no need to follow the landmark as you go; you just need to make sure that the arrow does not change its position. This ensures that the azimuth is maintained while moving. Unlike usual, it keeps the direction not only on the move, but also on the run. You just need to learn how to hold it correctly in a horizontal position.

Reverse:

1. The compass is held in a horizontal position, with the reference pointing towards the side or axial edge of the body.
2. Then its capsule rotates until the arrow is between the double lines, pointing exactly north. Next, you need to look at how many degrees are shown on the dial near the center line.

Now the azimuth has been received, you need to write it down in a notepad. Knowing what the horizon is and the azimuth to the desired landmark, you can safely hit the road, making notches, moving towards the desired goal through passing landmarks.

But we must not forget that it is common for every person to make mistakes in everything, including when working with a compass. Anyone can make a mistake in completely different ways: mix up the ends of the arrow, orient the dial inaccurately, or incorrectly sight the desired object. Any mistake can be very costly. Because, being in an unfamiliar place, especially far from populated areas, it is not difficult to get lost. Therefore, a traveler needs to be very careful and check himself several times.

The disadvantage of Adrianov's compass is that its needle is very mobile, and it is quite difficult to set it exactly on the zero stroke of the dial. It is wiser to place the compass on any support for greater accuracy. A stump in the forest or just a stick stuck in the ground will do. And you should still be on the safe side - make notes not just for one, but for several people on two or more compasses. Each conductor on duty has a backup: the two of them simultaneously make notches. If their results agree, then everything is fine. If they differ slightly, then the average value is taken. But when the calculations do not coincide at all, the work needs to be completely redone.

During a hike, movement is divided into two options: rigid azimuth (without a map strictly in azimuth) and movement according to the situation (along clearings, paths, roads), in the latter case the group is additionally guided by the approximate direction of movement (guiding azimuth).

Quite often, on the way, it is impossible to move along the sighting beam, because obstacles interfere: rivers, swamps, steep slopes, overgrown forest areas. In this case, the following tactical technique is used: alternate deviations from the azimuth. For example, one obstacle is avoided on the left, another on the right. After each round, the further direction is adjusted.

When the movement is in azimuth, a deviation of three degrees gives an estimated shift of the exit point of five percent. Therefore, the azimuth path is laid through intervals (landmarks) in separate segments.

Knowing how to use a map and compass are the basic skills of a traveler. Having the skills to know what the length of the horizon is and being able to navigate by azimuth, the traveler will never get lost in unfamiliar terrain, no matter where he is. Therefore, you should pay more attention to all these things when planning to go on a trip or hike.

As for choosing a compass, everyone decides for themselves what is more convenient for them. But there is a tendency that experienced older people choose the old and proven Adrianov compass, while young people prefer its modern analogues. Both the first and the second do the right thing, because it’s just a matter of convenience and habit. But in essence, both old models that have served for decades and new, improved ones work great.

Enjoy your trip and bon voyage to everyone planning to go hiking! May the horizon line always be visible to the eye!

I knew the names of the sides of the horizon from early childhood. It is very important to navigate them, because you need to know where to go in case of unforeseen situations, for example, if you get lost in the forest or in any other unfamiliar place.

What are the sides of the horizon?

I have a clear association with cardinal directions with something. So, for example, where the sun rises is east, and where it sets is west. I always associate the south with the sea, and the north with the city of Murmansk, where I have visited many times.

But in addition to the main sides of the horizon, there are intermediate ones. If you look at the cardinal directions, for example, north and west, then an angle of ninety degrees is formed between them. In order to get the side of the horizon intermediate between them, you need to divide this angle in half, then you get the direction northwest. They exist to more accurately determine the desired direction.

How to determine cardinal directions

It often happens that in unfamiliar terrain it is quite difficult to determine one direction or another. But there are several surefire ways to do this quickly and correctly. Here are the main items that can help you determine the right side:

• compass;
• smartphone;
• map.

Of course, the easiest way to use a compass is because its needle will always point correctly to the north. A smartphone is also perfect, because in most cases there is also a compass, albeit an electronic one. And thanks to the navigator, determining the direction is easier than ever.

If the above things are not available, then you can use the clock and the position of the sun. It is ideal to determine the direction at noon, when the sun is at its highest. Then your shadow will point north.

You can also build a compass yourself. To do this, you need to magnetize the needle and place it in a saucer of water. The magnetized end will turn towards the north.

You can also determine your direction using a map and geographic features nearby. You just need to compare what you see in front of you with the map.

The sides of the horizon on the ground are determined:

1) by compass;

2) by celestial bodies;

3) according to various features of local objects.

First of all, every student must learn to determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, in particular, using a luminous compass adapted for work at night. The student must master this simplest and most basic orienteering device perfectly. It is not necessary to have a universal Adrianov compass; you can work well with an ordinary luminous compass. When training, you must strive to accurately determine both the main directions of the sides of the horizon, as well as intermediate and reverse directions. The ability to identify reverse directions is very important, and special attention must be paid to it during training.

The observer must remember well the direction north on the ground in order to be able to indicate the sides of the horizon without a compass from any standing point, from memory.

It is still not always possible to accurately determine the direction of movement from the sides of the horizon.

Usually it is taken to a certain extent approximately, for example, in relation to the points of north, northeast, north-northeast, etc., and does not always coincide with them. A more accurate direction can be taken if the movement is made in azimuth. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to introduce the student to the basic concepts of azimuth. At first, it is necessary to ensure that he is able to: 1) determine the azimuth to a local object and 2) move along a given azimuth. As for preparing data for movement in azimuth, this can be done when the student learns to read a map.

How important it is to be able to move in azimuth can be seen from the following example. A certain rifle division fought a night battle in one of the forests in the Bryansk direction. The commander decided to surround the enemy troops. The success of the task depended to a large extent on accurately following the given directions. Everyone, from the squad commander and above, had to go in azimuth. And the ability to move by compass played a role here. As a result of a skillfully executed night maneuver, an entire enemy division was defeated.

In the absence of a compass, you can navigate by the celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, at night - by the Polar Star, the Moon and various constellations. And even if you have a compass, you should know the simplest techniques for orienting by celestial bodies; At night they are easy to navigate and follow the route.

There are a number of ways to determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun: by its position at noon, by sunrise or sunset, by the Sun and shadow, by the Sun and the clock, etc. You can find them in any manual on military topography. These methods are described in sufficient detail by V.I. Pryanishnikov in the interesting brochure “How to navigate”; They are also found in the famous book by Ya. I. Perelman “Entertaining Astronomy”. However, not all of these methods are applicable in combat practice, since their implementation requires a lot of time, calculated not in minutes, but in hours.

The fastest way is to determine by the Sun and the clock; Everyone needs to know this method. At noon, at 13 o'clock, the Sun is almost due south; at about 7 o'clock in the morning it will be in the east, and at 19 o'clock in the west. To find the north-south line at other hours of the day, you need to introduce an appropriate correction based on the calculation that for each hour the visible path of the Sun across the sky will be approximately 15°. The visible disks of the Sun and the full Moon are about half a degree across.

If we take into account that the hour hand circles the dial twice per day, and the Sun during the same time makes its apparent path around the Earth only once, then determining the sides of the horizon can be even easier. To do this you need:

1) place your pocket or wrist watch horizontally (Fig. 1);

Rice. 1. Orientation by the Sun and clock

3) divide the angle formed by the hour hand, the center of the dial and the number “1” in half.

The equidividing line will determine the direction north - south, and the south will be on the sunny side before 19 o'clock, and after 19 o'clock - where the sun was moving from.

It must be borne in mind that this method does not give an accurate result, but for orientation purposes it is quite acceptable. The main reason for the inaccuracy is that the clock dial is parallel to the horizon plane, while the apparent daily path of the Sun lies in the horizontal plane only at the pole.

Since at other latitudes the visible path of the Sun makes different angles with the horizon (up to a right angle at the equator), then, therefore, a greater or lesser error in orientation is inevitable, reaching tens of degrees in the summer, especially in the southern regions. Therefore, in southern latitudes, where the sun is high in summer, there is no point in resorting to this method. The smallest error occurs when using this method in winter, as well as during the equinox periods (around March 21 and September 23).

A more accurate result can be obtained if you use the following technique:

1) the watch is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position at an angle of 40–50° to the horizon (for a latitude of 50–40°), while the watch is held with the thumb and forefinger at the numbers “4” and “10”, the number “1” from yourself (Fig. 2);

2) having found the middle of the arc on the dial between the end of the hour hand and the number “1”, apply a match here perpendicular to the dial;

3) without changing the position of the watch, they rotate together with it in relation to the Sun so that the shadow of the match passes through the center of the dial; at this moment the number “1” will indicate the direction to the south.

Rice. 2. A refined method of orientation by the Sun and the clock

We do not touch upon the theoretical justification of the inaccuracies allowed when orienting by the Sun and the clock. The question will be clear if you turn to an elementary textbook on astronomy or a special guide to spherical astronomy. An explanation can also be found in the mentioned book by Ya. I. Perelman.

It is useful to remember that in mid-latitudes the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest in summer; In winter, the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest. Only twice a year the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets in the west (during the equinoxes).

A very simple and reliable method of orientation is the Polar Star, which always shows the direction north. The error here does not exceed 1–2°. The polar star is located near the so-called celestial pole, i.e. a special point around which the entire starry sky seems to us to revolve. In order to determine the true meridian, this star was used in ancient times. It is found in the sky with the help of the well-known constellation Ursa Major (Fig. 3).

Fig 3. Finding the North Star

The distance between the extreme stars of the “bucket” is mentally plotted in a straight line upwards about five times and the Polar Star is found here: its brightness is the same as the stars that make up the Big Dipper. Polaris is the end of the "bucket handle" of Ursa Minor; the stars of the latter are less bright and difficult to distinguish. It is not difficult to figure out that if the North Star is covered by clouds, and only the Big Dipper is visible, then the direction to the north can still be determined.

The North Star provides an invaluable service to the troops, as it allows not only to determine the sides of the horizon, but also helps to accurately follow the route, serving as a kind of beacon.

However, the situation may be such that, due to cloudiness, neither the Big Dipper nor the Polar Star is visible, but the Moon is visible. You can also determine the sides of the horizon by the Moon at night, although this is a less convenient and accurate method than determination by the North Star. The fastest way is to determine it by the moon and the clock. First of all, it is necessary to remember that the full (round) Moon opposes the Sun, that is, it is opposite the Sun. It follows that at midnight, i.e., according to our time at 1 o’clock, it is in the south, at 7 o’clock - in the west, and at 19 o’clock - in the east; Compared to the Sun, this results in a difference of 12 hours. This difference is not expressed on the watch dial - the hour hand at 1 o'clock or at 13 o'clock will be in the same place on the dial. Consequently, approximately the sides of the horizon can be determined from the full Moon and the clock in the same order as from the Sun and the clock.

Based on the partial Moon and the clock, the sides of the horizon are identified somewhat differently. The operating procedure here is as follows:

1) note the observation time on the clock;

2) divide the diameter of the Moon into twelve equal parts by eye (for convenience, first divide in half, then the desired half into two more parts, each of which is divided into three parts);

3) estimate how many such parts are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon;

4) if the Moon is waxing (the right half of the lunar disk is visible), then the resulting number must be subtracted from the hour of observation; if it decreases (the left side of the disk is visible), then add it. In order not to forget in which case to take the sum and in which the difference, it is useful to remember the following rule: take the sum when the visible crescent of the Moon is C-shaped; in the reverse (P-shaped) position of the visible lunar crescent, the difference must be taken (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Mnemonic rules for introducing an amendment

The sum or difference will show the hour when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon. From here, by pointing at the crescent Moon the place on the dial (but not the hour hand!), which corresponds to the newly obtained hour, and taking the Moon for the Sun, it is easy to find the north-south line.

Example. Observation time 5 hours 30 hours. the diameter of the visible “sickle” of the Moon contains 10/12 parts of its diameter (Fig. 5).

The moon is waning, as its left C-shaped side is visible. Summing up the observation time and the number of parts of the visible “crescent” of the Moon (5 hours 30 minutes + 10). we get the time when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon we are observing (15 hours 30 minutes). We set the division of the dial corresponding to 3 hours. 30 min., in the direction of the Moon.

The dividing line passing between it as a division, the center of the clock and the number “1”. will give the direction of the north-south line.

Rice. 5. Orientation by the partial moon and the clock

It is appropriate to note that the accuracy in determining the sides of the horizon from the Moon and the clock is also very relative. Nevertheless, the field observer will be quite satisfied with this accuracy. Astronomy manuals will help you understand the permissible error.

You can also navigate by the constellations, which seem to form various figures in the sky. To ancient astronomers, these figures resembled the shapes of animals and various objects, which is why they gave the constellations such names as Ursa, Leo, Swan, Eagle, Dolphin, Lyra, Corona, etc. Some constellations got their name in honor of mythical heroes and gods, for example, Hercules, Cassiopeia, etc. There are 88 constellations in the sky.

To navigate by constellations, first of all, you need to know well the starry sky, the location of the constellations, as well as when and in what part of the sky they are visible. We have already met two of the constellations. These are the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, by which the North Star is determined. But the North Star is not the only one suitable for orientation; Other stars can also be used for these purposes.

Ursa Major in our latitudes is located in the northern half of the sky. In the same half of the sky we can see the constellations Cassiopeia (outwardly resembling the letter M or W), Auriga (with the bright star Capella) and Lyra (with the bright star Vega), which are located more or less symmetrically around the North Star (Fig. 6). The intersection of straight mutually perpendicular lines drawn mentally through the constellations Cassiopeia - Ursa Major and Lyra - Auriga gives the approximate position of the North Star. If the Big Dipper is located above the horizon in a “bucket” vertically to the North Star, as shown in Fig. 6, then the “bucket” will indicate the direction to the north; Cassiopeia will be high above your head at this time. The charioteer is to the right, to the east, and Lyra is to the left, to the west. Consequently, you can navigate the terrain even by one of the indicated constellations, if the others are covered by clouds or are not visible due to any other circumstances.

Rice. 6. Constellations in the northern half of the sky

However, after 6 hours, due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the position of the constellations will be different: Lyra will approach the horizon, Ursa Major will move to the right, to the east, Cassiopeia - to the left, to the west, and Auriga will be overhead.

Let us now turn to the southern half of the sky.

Here we will see such constellations as Orion, Taurus, Gemini, Leo, Swan. Due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the position of these constellations will change. Some of them will go below the horizon during the night, while others will appear over the horizon from the east. Due to the annual movement of the Earth around the Sun, the position of the constellations will be different on different days, that is, it will change throughout the year. Therefore, constellations located in the sky far from the celestial pole are visible at one time of the year and not visible at another.

In the sky, the constellation Orion stands out perfectly, having the shape of a large quadrangle, in the middle of which there are three stars in one row (Fig. 7). The upper left star of Orion is called Betelgeuse. In December, around midnight, Orion points almost due south. In January, it is located above the south point around 10 pm.

In Fig. 7 shows the location of other constellations located in the southern half of the winter sky: this is the constellation Taurus with the bright star Aldebaran, Canis Major with the brightest star in our sky - Sirius, Canis Minor with the bright star Procyon, Gemini with two bright stars - Castor and Pollux.

Gemini is located above the south point in December around midnight, Canis Minor in January.

Rice. 7. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (winter)

In spring, the constellation Leo with the bright star Regulus appears in the southern sky. This constellation has the shape of a trapezoid. It can be found along the continuation of a straight line passing from the North Star through the edge of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper (Fig. 8). The constellation Leo is above the south point in March around midnight. In May, around midnight, the constellation Bootes with the bright star Arcturus is located above the point of the south (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Constellations about the southern half of the sky (in spring)

In summer, in the southern sky you can easily spot the constellation Cygnus with the bright star Deneb. This constellation is located near the constellation Lyra and has the appearance of a flying bird (Fig. 9). Below it you can find the constellation Aquila with the bright star Altair. The constellations Cygnus and Aquila appear in the south around midnight during July and August. A faint band of stars known as the Milky Way passes through the constellations Aquila, Cygnus, Cassiopeia, Auriga, and Gemini.

In autumn, the southern part of the sky is occupied by the constellations Andromeda and Pegasus. The stars of Andromeda are elongated in one line. The bright star of Andromeda (Alferap) forms a large square with the three stars of Pegasus (Fig. 9). Pegasus is located above the south point in September around midnight.

In November, the constellation Taurus, shown in Fig. 1, is already approaching the point of the south. 7.

It is useful to remember that during the course of the year all the stars gradually move towards the west and, therefore, in a month some constellation will be located above the point of the south not at midnight, but somewhat earlier. After half a month, the same constellation will appear above the south point an hour earlier than midnight, after a month - two hours earlier, after two months - four hours earlier, etc. In the previous month, the same constellation appeared above the south point and two hours later than midnight, two months ago - four hours later than Patunocha, etc. For example, the outermost stars of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper (by which the position of the Polar Star is determined - see Fig. 3) are directed vertically downward from the Polar Star on the day of autumn equinox around 11 p.m. The same position of the Big Dipper is observed a month later, at the end of October, but already at about 21 o’clock, at the end of November - about 19 o’clock, etc. During the winter solstice (December 22), the “bucket” of the Big Dipper takes a horizontal position at midnight, to the right of the North Star. By the end of March, at the spring equinox, the “bucket” at midnight takes on an almost vertical position and is visible high above your head, up from the North Star. By the time of the summer solstice (June 22), the “bucket” at midnight is again located almost horizontally, but to the left of the North Star.

Rice. 9. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (summer to autumn)

We must take advantage of every suitable opportunity to teach students to quickly and accurately find the main constellations in the sky at different times of the night and year. The leader must not only explain the methods for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies, but must also demonstrate them in practice. It is very important that students themselves practically determine the sides of the horizon using the methods described, only then can they count on success in learning.

It is better to demonstrate different options for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies in the same place, with different positions of the luminaries, so that students can see with their own eyes that the results are the same.

By the way, we note that with the help of a compass and celestial bodies (Sun, Moon), you can also solve the inverse problem - determine the approximate time. To do this you need:

1) take the azimuth from the Sun;

2) divide the azimuth value by 15;

3) add 1 to the result.

The resulting number will indicate the approximate time. The error allowed here, in principle, will be the same as when orienting by the Sun and the clock (see pages 9 and 10).

Examples. 1) Azimuth to the Sun is 195°. Solving: 195:15–13; 13+1=14 hours.

2) Azimuth to the Sun is 66°. We solve: 66:15-4.4; 4.4 + 1 = about 5 1/2 hours.

Time, however, can be determined by the celestial bodies without a compass. We will give some approximate methods, since determining time is important when orienting on the ground.

During the day, you can practice determining time by the Sun, if you remember that the highest position of the Sun occurs at 13 o'clock (at noon). By noticing the position of the Sun many times at different times of the day in a given area, you can eventually develop the skills to determine the time with an accuracy of half an hour. In everyday life, quite often the approximate time is determined by the height of the Sun above the horizon.

At night you can find out the time by the position of the Big Dipper. To do this, you need to mark a line in the sky - an hour “hand”, passing from the North Star to the two extreme stars of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper, and mentally imagine in this part of the sky a clock dial, the center of which will be the North Star (Fig. 10). Time is further defined as follows:

1) count down the time using the celestial “arrow” (in Fig. 10 it will be 7 hours);

2) take the serial number of the month from the beginning of the year with tenths, counting every 3 days as one tenth of the month (for example, October 15th will correspond to the number 10.5);

Rice. 10. Celestial clock

3) add the first two numbers found to each other and multiply the sum by two [in our case it will be (7+10.5) x 2=35];

4) subtract the resulting number from the coefficient equal to 55.3 for the “arrow” of the Big Dipper (55.3-35 = 20.3). The result will be given by the time at the moment (20 hours 20 minutes). If the total was more than 24, then you need to subtract 24 from it.

The coefficient of 55.3 is derived from the specific location of the Big Dipper among other stars in the sky.

Stars of other constellations close to the North Star can also serve as arrows, but the coefficients in such cases will be different numbers. For example, for the “arrow” between the North Star and the brightest star after it, Ursa Minor (the lower outer corner of the “bucket”), the coefficient is 59.1. For the “arrow” between the North Star and the middle, brightest star of the constellation Cassiopeia, the coefficient is expressed as 67.2. To get a more reliable result, it is advisable to determine the time using all three “arrows” and take the average of the three readings.

Methods for determining the sides of the horizon using a compass and celestial bodies are the best and most reliable. Determining the sides of the horizon from various features of local objects, although less reliable, can still be useful in a certain situation. In order to use the various features of objects with the greatest success, you need to study the surrounding area and take a closer look at everyday natural phenomena more often. In this way, students develop observation skills.

In the diaries of travelers, in fiction and scientific literature, in periodicals, in the stories of hunters and pathfinders, there is always valuable material regarding orientation.

The ability to extract from one’s observations and the observations of others everything that can be useful for the student’s combat training is one of the tasks of the teacher.

The ability to navigate by barely noticeable signs is especially developed among northern peoples. “Over the centuries, the northern peoples have developed their own view of distances. Visiting a neighbor located two or three hundred kilometers away is not considered travel.

And off-road doesn't matter. In winter there is a road everywhere. Of course, you need to be able to navigate among a very monochromatic landscape, and sometimes even in a snowstorm, which makes it impossible to distinguish anything except the swirling snow. Under such conditions, any newcomer would risk his life. Only a native of the North will not go astray, guided by some almost indistinguishable signs.”

Special signs must be used carefully and skillfully. Some of them give reliable results only under certain conditions of time and place. Suitable in some conditions, they may be unsuitable in others. Sometimes the problem can be solved only by simultaneous observation of several features.

The vast majority of features are associated with the position of objects in relation to the Sun. The difference in lighting and heating by the sun usually causes certain changes on the sunny or shadow side of an object. However, a number of incoming factors can sometimes disrupt the expected pattern, and then even well-known features will turn out to be unsuitable for orientation purposes.

It is widely believed that you can navigate by using tree branches. It is usually believed that tree branches are more developed in a southerly direction. Meanwhile, observation experience says that it is impossible to navigate by this sign in the forest, since the branches of the trees develop more not towards the south, but towards the free space.

They say that you can navigate by standing alone trees, but here, too, mistakes are often possible. Firstly, you cannot be sure that the tree has been growing separately all along.

Secondly, the formation and general configuration of the crown of an individual tree is sometimes much more dependent on the prevailing winds (see below, page 42). rather than from the sun, not to mention other reasons affecting the growth and development of the tree. This dependence is especially clearly visible in the mountains, where the winds are very strong.

The method of orienting wood growth by annual rings is also well known. It is believed that these rings on the stumps of cut trees standing in the open are wider in the south than in the north. It must be said that no matter how much we observed, we could not detect this pattern. Turning to specialized literature, we found the answer there. It turns out that the width of the wood track, as well as the development of branches on trees, depends not only on the intensity of sunlight, but also on the strength and direction of the winds. Moreover, the width of the rings is uneven not only horizontally, but also vertically; therefore, the pattern of tree ring arrangement may change if the tree is cut at different heights from the ground surface.

We deliberately focused on these features, since they are the ones that are most popular.

Meanwhile, the facts convince us that they should be considered unreliable.

This is not difficult to verify, you just have to observe more.

In the temperate climate zone, the sides of the horizon are easy to determine by the bark and lichens (moss) on the trees; you just need to inspect not one, but several trees. On birch trees, the bark is lighter and more elastic on the southern side than on the northern side (Fig. 11). The difference in color is so striking that you can successfully navigate using the birch bark even in the middle of a sparse forest.

Rice. eleven. Orientation by birch bark

Generally speaking, the bark of many trees is somewhat rougher on the north side than on the south side.

The development of lichen mainly on the northern side of the trunk makes it possible to determine the sides of the horizon from other trees. On some of them the lichen is noticeable at first glance, on others it is visible only upon careful examination. If lichen is present on different sides of the trunk, there is usually more of it on the northern side, especially near the root. Taiga hunters navigate by bark and lichens surprisingly well. However, it should be borne in mind that in winter the lichen can be covered with snow.

War experience shows that the skillful use of forest signs helped to maintain a given direction and maintain the required battle order in the forest. One unit had to go west through the forest on a stormy day; seeing lichens on tree trunks to their left, and trunks without lichens to their right, the soldiers quite accurately followed the direction and completed the task.

The northern slopes of wooden roofs are more covered with green-brown moss than the southern ones. Moss and mold sometimes also develop near drainpipes located on the north side of buildings. Moss and lichen often cover the shady sides of large stones and rocks (Fig. 12); in mountainous areas, as well as where boulder deposits are developed, this sign is common and can be useful. However, when orienting on this basis, it should be borne in mind that the development of lichen and moss in some cases depends to a much greater extent on the prevailing winds that bring rain than on their location in relation to the sun.

Rice. 12. Orientation by moss on a stone

Pine trunks are usually covered with a crust (secondary), which forms earlier on the north side of the trunk and, therefore, extends higher than on the south side. This is especially clearly visible after rains, when the crust swells and turns black (Fig. 13). In addition, in hot weather, resin appears on the trunks of pines and spruces, accumulating more on the south side of the trunks.

Rice. 13. Orientation by pine bark

Ants usually (but not always) make their homes south of the nearest trees, stumps and bushes. The southern side of the anthill is more sloping, and the northern side is steeper (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Anthill navigation

In northern latitudes on summer nights, due to the proximity of the setting sun to the horizon, the northern side of the sky is the lightest, the southern side is the darkest. This feature is sometimes used by pilots when operating at night.

On a polar night in the Arctic, the picture is the opposite: the lightest part of the sky is the southern part, the northern part is the darkest.

In spring, on the northern edges of the forest clearings, the grass grows thicker than on the southern edges; To the south of tree stumps, large stones, and pillars, the grass is thicker and higher than to the north (Fig. 15).

Rice. 15. Orientation on the grass near the stump

In summer, during prolonged hot weather, the grass to the south of these objects sometimes turns yellow and even dries, while to the north of them remains green.

During the ripening period, berries and fruits acquire color earlier on the south side.

Curious are the sunflower and the string, the flowers of which are usually turned towards the sun and turn after its movement across the sky. On rainy days, this circumstance gives the observer some opportunity for rough orientation, since the flowers of these plants are not directed to the north.

In summer, the soil near large stones, individual buildings, and stumps is drier on the south side than on the north; this difference is easy to notice by touch.

The letter “N” (sometimes “C”) on the weather vane indicates north (Fig. 16).

Figure 10. Vane. The letter N points to north

The altars of Orthodox churches and chapels face the east, the bell towers - “from the west; the raised edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the church points to the north, and the lowered edge points to the south (Fig. 17). The altars of Lutheran churches (kirks) also face east, and the bell towers face west. The altars of the Catholic “hostels” face west.

It can be assumed that the doors of Muslim mosques and Jewish synagogues in the European part of the Soviet Union face approximately north. The façade of the shrines faces south. According to the observations of travelers, exits from the yurts are made to the south.

Figure 17. Orientation by the cross on the dome of the church

It is interesting to note that conscious orientation took place during the construction of dwellings, back in the days of pile buildings. Among the Egyptians, orientation during the construction of temples was determined by strict legal provisions; The side faces of the ancient Egyptian pyramids are located in the direction of the sides of the horizon.

Clearings in large forestry enterprises (in forest dachas) are often cut almost strictly along the lines north - south and east - west.

This is very clearly visible on some topographic maps. The forest is divided by clearings into quarters, which in the USSR are usually numbered from west to east and from north to south, so that the first number is in the northwestern corner of the farm, and the last one is in the extreme southeast (Fig. 18).

Rice. 18. Numbering order of forest blocks

The block numbers are marked on the so-called block posts placed at all intersections of the clearings. To do this, the upper part of each pillar is hewn in the form of edges, on which the number of the opposite quarter is burned or inscribed with paint. It is easy to understand that the edge between two adjacent faces with the smallest numbers in this case will indicate the direction to the north (Fig. 19).

Figure 19. Orientation by quarter pillar

This sign can be used as a guide in many other European countries, for example in Germany and Poland. However, it is not superfluous to know that in Germany and Poland forest management numbers the blocks in the reverse order, that is, from east to west. But this will not change the method of determining the north point. In some countries, block numbers are often indicated by inscriptions on stones, on tablets attached to trees and, finally, also on poles.

It should be remembered that for economic reasons, clearings can be cut in other directions (for example, parallel to the direction of the highway or depending on the terrain). In small forest areas and in the mountains this is most often the case. Nevertheless, even in this case, for rough orientation, the indicated sign can sometimes turn out to be useful. When fighting in the forest, the numbers on the quarter posts are also interesting in another respect: they can be used for target designation. To determine the sides of the horizon, cuttings that are usually carried out against the direction of the prevailing wind are also suitable. You can learn more about all this in courses on forest management and silviculture.

The presence of snow creates additional signs for orientation. In winter, snow sticks to buildings more on the north side and thaws faster on the south. Snow in a ravine, hollow, hole on the north side melts earlier than on the south; corresponding thawing can be observed even in human or animal tracks. In the mountains, snow melts faster on the southern slopes. On hillocks and mounds, melting occurs more intensely, also on the southern side (Fig. 20).

Rice. 20.Orientation by melting snow in depressions and on hills

On south-facing slopes in the spring, clearings appear the faster the steeper the slopes are: every extra degree of slope of the area to the south is equivalent to moving the area one degree closer to the equator. The roots of trees and stumps are freed from snow earlier on the south side. On the shady (north) side of objects, snow lasts longer in spring. At the beginning of spring, on the southern side of buildings, hillocks, and stones, the snow has time to thaw a little and move away, while on the northern side it adheres tightly to these objects (Fig. 21).

Rice. 21. Orientation by melting snow on a stone

At the northern edge of the forest, the soil is freed from snow sometimes 10–15 days later than at the southern edge.

In March-April, due to the melting of snow, you can navigate along the holes elongated in a southern direction (Fig. 22), which surround tree trunks, stumps and pillars standing in the open; On the shaded (northern) side of the holes, a ridge of snow is visible. The holes are formed from solar heat reflected and distributed by these objects.

Rice. 22. Hole orientation

It is possible to determine the sides of the horizon by holes in the fall, if the fallen snow has melted from the sun's rays. These holes should not be confused with "concentric depressions formed" by blowing in snowstorms, such as around poles or tree stumps.

In spring, on the slopes facing the sun, the snow mass seems to “bristle,” forming peculiar protrusions (“spikes”) separated by depressions (rns. 23). The projections are parallel to each other, inclined at the same angle to the ground and directed towards noon. The angle of inclination of the protrusions corresponds to the angle of the sun at its highest point. These protrusions and depressions are especially clearly visible on slopes covered with contaminated snow. Sometimes they occur on horizontal or slightly inclined areas of the earth's surface. It is not difficult to guess that they are formed under the influence of the heat of the midday rays of the sun.

Rice. 23. Orientation by snow “spikes” and depressions on the slope

Observing slopes that are differently positioned in relation to the sun's rays can also help navigate the terrain. In spring, vegetation develops earlier and faster on the southern slopes, and later and more slowly on the northern slopes. Under normal conditions, southern slopes are generally drier, less turfed, and the processes of washout and erosion are more pronounced on them. However, this is not always the case. Correctly resolving an issue often requires taking into account many factors.

It has been noted that in many mountainous regions of Siberia, slopes facing south are more gentle, since they are cleared of snow earlier, dry out earlier and are more easily destroyed by rain and snow meltwater flowing down them. Northern slopes, on the contrary, remain under snow cover longer, are better moistened and less destroyed, so they are steeper. This phenomenon is so typical here that in some areas on a rainy day it is possible to accurately determine the cardinal directions by the shape of the slopes.

In desert areas, the moisture that falls on the southern slopes quickly evaporates, so on these slopes the wind blows debris. On northern slopes, protected from the direct influence of the sun, the flutter is less pronounced; Here, mainly physical and chemical processes occur, accompanied by a transformation in the composition of rocks and minerals. This nature of the slopes is observed on the borders of the Gobi Desert, in the Sahara, and on many ridges of the Tien Shan system.

Determining the sides of the horizon directly from the wind is possible only in areas where its direction is constant for a long time. In this sense, trade winds, monsoons and breezes have more than once provided a service to man. In Antarctica, on Adélie land, the south-southeast wind blows so constantly that members of the Mausson expedition (1911–1914) in a snowstorm and in complete darkness unmistakably navigated with the wind; During excursions into the interior of the mainland, travelers preferred to navigate by the wind rather than by a compass, the accuracy of which was greatly influenced by the proximity of the magnetic pole.

It is more convenient to navigate based on the effects of wind on the terrain; To do this, you only need to know the direction of the prevailing wind in a given area.

Traces of wind work are especially clearly visible in the mountains, but in winter they are clearly visible on the plain.

The direction of the prevailing wind can be judged by the inclination of the trunks of most trees, especially on the edges and free-standing trees, in which the inclination is more noticeable; in the steppes of Bessarabia, for example, the trees tilt towards the southeast. All the olive trees in Palestine lean towards the southeast. Under the influence of prevailing winds, a flag-like shape of trees is sometimes formed due to the fact that on the windward side of the trees the buds dry out and the branches do not develop. Such “natural weather vanes,” as Charles Darwin called them, can be seen on the Cape Verde Islands, Normandy, Palestine and other places. It is interesting to note that on the Cape Verde Islands there are trees in which the top, under the influence of the trade wind, is bent at right angles to the trunk. Windfalls are also oriented; in the Subpolar Urals, for example, due to strong northwest winds, they are usually directed to the southeast. The sides of wooden buildings, poles, fences exposed to the prevailing wind are destroyed faster and differ in color from other sides. In places where the wind blows in one specific direction most of the year, its grinding activity is very sharply affected. In rocks that can be weathered (clays, limestones), parallel grooves are formed, elongated in the direction of the prevailing wind and separated by sharp ridges. On the surface of the calcareous plateau of the Libyan Desert, such grooves, polished with sand, reach a depth of 1 m and are elongated in the direction of the dominant wind from north to south. In the same way, niches are often formed in soft rocks, over which harder layers hang in the form of cornices (Fig. 24).

Rice. 24. Orientation by the degree of weathering of rocks (the arrow indicates the direction of the prevailing wind)

In the mountains of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Urals, the Carpathians, the Alps and in the deserts, the destructive action of the wind is very well expressed. Extensive material on this issue can be found in geology courses.

In Western Europe (France, Germany), winds that bring bad weather affect the northwest side of objects most of all.

The effect of wind on mountain slopes varies depending on the position of the slopes in relation to the prevailing wind.

In the mountains, steppe and tundra, the prevailing winter winds that move snow (blizzards, blizzards) have a great influence on the area. The windward slopes of the mountains are usually lightly covered with snow or completely snowless, the plants on them are damaged, and the soil freezes strongly and deeply. On the leeward slopes, on the contrary, snow accumulates.

When the terrain is covered with snow, you can find other signs for orientation on it, created by the work of the wind. Particularly suitable for these purposes are some surface snow formations that occur in various terrain and vegetation conditions. At cliffs and ditches, on the walls facing away from the wind, a beak-shaped snow peak forms on top, sometimes curved downwards (Fig. 25).

Rice. 25. Scheme of snow accumulation near cliffs and ditches (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

On steep walls facing the wind, due to the swirling of the snow at the base, a blowing trench is formed (Fig. 26).

Rice. 26. Scheme of snow accumulation near steep walls facing the wind (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

At small individual elevations (hill, hillock, haystack, etc.) on the leeward side behind a small blowing chute, a flat, tongue-shaped snowdrift is deposited with a steep slope facing the hill and gradually thinning in the opposite direction: on the windward side, with sufficient steepness, a blowing chute is formed . On equally inclined low ridges such as a railway embankment, snow is deposited only at the base of the ridge and is blown away from the top (Fig. 27). However, in high, equally inclined ridges, a snowdrift forms at the top.

Rice. 27. Scheme of snow accumulation near an equally inclined low ridge (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)

Regular snow accumulations can also be created near trees, stumps, bushes and other small objects. Near them, a triangular sediment usually forms on the windward side, elongated in the direction of the wind. These wind deposits make it possible to navigate along them in a sparse forest or field.

As a result of the movement of snow by the wind, various surface formations are created in the form of snow accumulations transverse and longitudinal to the wind. Transverse formations include the so-called snow waves (sastrugi) and snow ripples, while longitudinal formations include snow dunes and tongue accumulations. The most interesting of them are snow waves, which are a very common form of snow surface. They are common on the dense surface of snow crust, on the ice of rivers and lakes. These snow waves are white in color, which makes them different from the underlying crust or ice. “The waves of snow on the vast plains are widely used as a guide to travel. Knowing the direction of the wind that created the waves, you can use the location of the waves as a compass along the way.”

S.V. Obruchev notes that in Chukotka he had to navigate the sastrugi while traveling at night. In the Arctic, sastrugi are often used as landmarks along the way.

Frost (long ice and snow threads and brushes) forms on tree branches mainly from the direction of the prevailing wind.

The Baltic lakes are characterized by uneven overgrowing as a result of the influence of prevailing winds. The leeward, western shores of the lakes and their bays directed to the west are overgrown with peat and turned into peat bogs. On the contrary, the eastern, windward, wave-cut shores are free of thickets.

Knowing the direction of the wind constantly blowing in a given area, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the shape of dunes or dunes (Fig. 28). As is known, accumulations of sand of this type are usually short ridges, generally elongated perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The convex part of the dune faces the direction of the wind, while its concave part is leeward: the “horns” of the dune are extended in the direction where the wind blows. The slopes of dunes and dunes facing the prevailing wind are gentle (up to 15°), the leeward ones are steep (up to 40°).

Rice. 28. Orientation:

A - along the dunes; B - along the dunes (arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing wind)

Their windward slopes are compacted by the wind, grains of sand are pressed tightly against one another; leeward slopes are crumbling and loose. Under the influence of wind, sand ripples often form on windward slopes in the form of parallel ridges, often branching and perpendicular to the direction of the wind; There are no sand ripples on the leeward slopes. Dunes and dunes can sometimes connect with each other and form dune chains, that is, parallel ridges stretched transversely to the direction of the prevailing winds. The height of dunes and dunes ranges from 3–5 m to 30–40 m.

There are sand accumulations in the form of ridges, elongated in the direction of the prevailing winds.

These are the so-called ridge sands; their rounded ridges are parallel to the wind; they have no division of slopes into steep and gentle.

The height of such longitudinal dunes can reach several tens of meters, and their length can reach several kilometers.

Dune formations are usually found along the shores of seas, large lakes, rivers, and in deserts. In deserts, longitudinal dunes are more widespread than transverse ones. Dunes, as a rule, are found only in deserts. Sand accumulations of various types are found in the Baltic states, in the Trans-Caspian deserts, near the Aral Sea, near lake. Balkhash and other places.

There are numerous sand formations in the deserts of North Africa, Central Asia, and Australia.

In our Central Asian deserts (Kara-Kum, Kyzyl-Kum), where northern winds are dominant, ridge sands most often extend in the meridional direction, and dune chains - in the latitudinal direction. In Xinjiang (Western China), where easterly winds predominate, the dune chains extend approximately in the meridional direction.

In the deserts of North Africa (Sahara, Libyan Desert), sand ridges are also oriented in accordance with the direction of the prevailing winds. If you mentally follow the direction from the Mediterranean Sea to the interior of the mainland, then at first the sand ridges are oriented approximately along the meridian, and then they deviate more and more to the west and at the borders of Sudan they take a latitudinal direction. Thanks to strong summer winds blowing from the south, near the latitudinal ridges (near the borders of Sudan), the northern slope is steep and the southern slope is gentle. Sand ridges here can often be traced for hundreds of kilometers.

In the Australian deserts, sand ridges stretch in the form of many weakly sinuous lines parallel to each other, separated from one another by an average distance of about 400 m. These ridges also reach a length of several hundred kilometers. The extent of the sand ridges exactly corresponds to the directions of the prevailing winds in different parts of Australia. In the southeastern deserts of Australia, the ridges are elongated meridionally, the northern ones deviate to the northwest, and in the deserts of western Australia they extend in the latitudinal direction.

In the southwestern part of the Indian Thar Desert, the dune ridges have a northeasterly strike, but in the northeastern part, the general direction of the dunes is northwest.

For orientation purposes, small sand accumulations that form near various obstacles (surface unevenness, block, stone, bush, etc.) can also be used.

Near the bushes, for example, a sand spit appears, stretched with a sharp edge in the direction of the wind. Near impenetrable barriers, sand sometimes forms small mounds and blowing grooves like snow, but the process here is more complicated and depends on the height of the barrier, the size of the sand grains and the strength of the wind.

The regular arrangement of sand accumulations in deserts is clearly visible from an airplane, on aerial photographs, and topographic maps. Sand ridges sometimes make it easier for pilots to maintain the correct direction of flight.

In some areas, you can also navigate by other features that have a narrow local significance. Especially many of these signs can be observed among vegetation covering slopes of various exposures.

On the northern slopes of the dunes, south of Liepaja (Libava), plants of wet places grow (moss, blueberries, lingonberries, crowberries), while dry-loving plants (moss moss, heather) grow on the southern slopes; on the southern slopes the soil cover is thin, with sand exposed in places.

In the southern Urals, in the ashes of the forest-steppe, the southern slopes of the mountains are rocky and covered with grass, while the northern slopes are covered with soft sediments and overgrown with birch forests. In the south of the Buguruslan region, the southern slopes are covered with meadows, and the northern ones with forest.

In the Upper Angara River basin, steppe areas are confined to the southern slopes; other slopes are covered with taiga forest. In Altai, the northern slopes are also much richer in forest.

The north-facing slopes of the river valleys between Yakutsk and the mouth of the Mai are densely covered with larch and almost devoid of grass; the slopes facing south are covered with pine or typical steppe vegetation.

In the mountains of the Western Caucasus, pine grows on the southern slopes, and beech, spruce, and fir grow on the northern slopes. In the western part of the North Caucasus, beech covers the northern slopes, and oak covers the southern slopes. In the southern part of Ossetia, spruce, fir, yew, and beech grow on the northern slopes, and ssna and oak grow on the southern slopes. “Throughout the entire Transcaucasus, starting from the valley of the Riopa River and ending with the valley of the Kura tributary in Azerbaijan, oak forests are settled with such consistency on the southern slopes that by the distribution of oak on foggy days without a compass one can accurately determine the countries of the world.”

In the Far East, in the South Ussuri region, the velvet tree is found almost exclusively on the northern slopes; oak dominates on the southern slopes. Coniferous forest grows on the western slopes of Snkhote-Alin, and mixed forest grows on the eastern slopes.

In the Kursk region, in the Lgov district, oak forests grow on the southern slopes, while birch predominates on the northern slopes.

Oak is therefore very characteristic of southern slopes.

In Transbaikalia, at the height of summer, on the northern slopes, permafrost was observed at a depth of 10 cm, while on the southern slopes it was at a depth of 2–3 m.

The southern slopes of the Bulgunnyakhs (rounded, dome-shaped hills up to 30–50 m high, folded inside with ice and covered with frozen soil on top, found in northern Asia and North America) are usually steep, covered with grass or complicated by landslides, the northern ones are gentle, often forested.

Vineyards are grown on south-facing slopes.

In mountains with sharply defined relief forms, forests and meadows on the southern slopes usually rise higher than on the northern ones. In temperate and high latitudes in the mountains covered with eternal snow, there is a snow line. On southern slopes it is higher than on northern slopes; however, there may be deviations from this rule.

The number of special signs by which you can navigate is not limited to the listed examples - there are many more of them. But the above material clearly shows what an abundance of simple signs an observer has at his disposal when navigating the terrain.

Some of these features are more reliable and applicable everywhere, others are less reliable and are suitable only in certain conditions of time and place.

One way or another, all of them must be used skillfully and thoughtfully.

Notes:

Azimuth- a word of Arabic origin ( orassumút), meaning paths, roads.

By government decree on June 16, 1930, the clocks we live by in the USSR were moved 1 hour ahead compared to solar time; Therefore, for us, noon begins not at 12, but at 13 o’clock (the so-called maternity time).

Bubnov I., Kremp A., Folimonov S., Military topography, ed. 4th, Military Publishing House, 1953

Nabokov M. and Vorontsov-Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of high school, ed. 4th, 1940

Kazakov S., Course in Spherical Astronomy, ed. 2nd, Gostekhizdat, 1940

You can divide the radius of the Moon into six equal parts, the result will be the same.

Kazakov S. Course of spherical astronomy, ed. 2nd, 1940; Nabokov M. and Vorontsov- Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of high school, ed. 4th 1940

Shchukin I., General morphology of land, vol. II, GONTI, 1938, p. 277.

Tkachenko M.,- General forestry, Goslestekhizdat. 1939, pp. 93–94.

Kosnachev K., Bulguniyakhi,“Nature” No. 11. 1953, p. 112.

Section 5. Orientation

Essence and methods of orientation

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or chosen direction of movement and understanding the location of landmarks, boundaries, friendly troops, enemy troops, engineering structures and other objects on the ground.

Methods of orientation. Depending on the nature of the task being performed, orientation can be carried out on the spot from individual points (for example, from observation points during reconnaissance) or on the move (on the march, on the offensive, etc.). In both cases, the main method is to navigate using a topographic map using a compass.

Reliable route keeping in difficult conditions and poor visibility is most successfully carried out using a topographic map using data provided by navigation equipment (coordinator and course plotter). A generally available way to maintain the direction of movement at night, as well as in areas with rare landmarks, is to move along azimuths prepared in advance from the map. In some cases, orientation (determining the direction of movement) can be done without a map (using a compass, landmarks, celestial bodies, signs of local objects).

When orienting on the ground during reconnaissance, topographical and then tactical orientation is performed first.

Topographical orientation includes determining the sides of the horizon, the point of one’s standing, and the position of surrounding terrain objects. When doing topographical orientation, they first show the direction to the north of any object and their location relative to the nearest and clearly visible landmark. Then the necessary landmarks and other terrain objects are named, directions to them and approximate distances are indicated. Directions to landmarks indicate relative to your position (straight, right, left) or along the sides of the horizon. The order of indicating landmarks is from right to left, starting from the right flank. Example of a report on topographical orientation: “ The direction to the north is the mound. We are located on the northern outskirts of Timonovka; on the right, 5 km - Semenovka; straight ahead, 4 km - “Dark” grove; further, 10 km - the settlement of Ivanovka; to the left, 2 km - height 125.6».

Tactical orientation consists of determining and showing on the ground the location and nature of the actions of enemy troops and friendly units by a certain time.

Navigation without a map

Orientation without a map consists of determining the sides of the horizon (directions north, east, south, west) and your location on the ground relative to landmarks and takes place in a limited area.

Landmarks are clearly visible local objects and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects.

Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible along the front and in depth. The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left along the lines and away from you towards the enemy. In addition to the number, each landmark is usually given a conventional name corresponding to its external characteristics, for example, “ Dry wood», « House with a red roof" and so on.

Sides of the horizon and methods for determining them

It must be remembered that if you stand facing north, then the east will be on your right hand, the west will be on your left, respectively, the south will be behind your back . To determine the sides of the horizon, the following methods can be recommended:

• by compass;
• by the Sun and analogue clock;
• by the Sun and digital clock;
• using improvised means;
• for local facilities;
• according to the North Star;
• on the Moon.

Let us consider in more detail the indicated methods for determining the sides of the horizon, as well as the recommended sequence of their development during training sessions.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass. A magnetic compass is a device that allows you to determine the sides of the horizon, as well as measure angles in degrees on the ground. The principle of operation of a compass is that a magnetized needle on a hinge rotates along the lines of force of the Earth's magnetic field and is constantly held by them in one direction. The most common are various versions of the Adrianov compass and the artillery compass.

Rice. 5.1 Compass Adrianov

1 - cover with stands for sighting; 2 - limb; 3 - count indicator; 4 – magnetic needle; 5 - brake

Compass Adrianov(Fig. 5.1) allows you to measure angles in degrees and inclinometer divisions. A dial with two scales is used to measure angles. Degrees are marked in 15° intervals (division value is 3°) clockwise, protractor divisions are marked in 5-00 intervals (division value is 0-50). The dial reading is read using a pointer mounted on the inner wall of the compass cover opposite the front sight. The northern end of the magnetic needle, the reference and division indicator on the dial, corresponding to 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°, are covered with a glow-in-the-dark composition. There is a mechanism that slows down the movement of the arrow.

Rice. 5.2 Artillery compass

1 – compass body; 2 – rotating dial body; 3 - limb; 4 – compass cover with a mirror “a”, a cutout for sighting “b” and a latch “c”; 5 – magnetic needle; 6 – protrusion of the brake lever arrows

Artillery compass(Fig. 5.2) thanks to some improvements, it is more convenient to use than Adrianov’s compass. Its body is rectangular, which allows you to accurately position the compass along the map lines and draw directions. The compass cover with a mirror surface allows you to observe the position of the magnetic needle and at the same time sight the object. The magnetic needle more steadily records the direction of the magnetic meridian; Its braking is carried out by closing the lid. The scale division value is 1-00, their signatures are given after 5-00 clockwise.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and an analog clock. This fairly convenient and accurate method of determining the sides of the horizon is used if the Sun is visible, or it is determined through the clouds.

Rice. 5.3

Analog watches are held in a horizontal plane and rotated until the hour hand aligns with the direction of the Sun, the position of the minute hand is not taken into account. The angle between the hour hand and the number “1” on the watch dial is divided in half. A line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 5.3). It is important to remember that before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not traversed by the clock hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock. This method of determining the sides of the horizon is used when the light of the Sun is sufficient for objects to cast a shadow.

On a horizontal surface (on the ground) a circle with a diameter of 25-30 cm is drawn with a point in the center. Then, on the outer side of the circle from the side of the Sun, a small load (for example, a bunch of keys) is suspended on a rope or cord so that the shadow of the rope passes through the center of the drawn circle. Next, through the point of intersection of the shadow from the rope with the sunny side of the circle and the center of the circle, a radius is drawn, indicating the hour hand of an imaginary clock. Using a digital clock, the actual time is specified, according to which divisions of an imaginary dial are drawn in the circle.

Further, as on an analog watch, the angle between one o'clock in the afternoon and the drawn hour hand is divided in half (before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not passed by the hour hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed). The resulting direction is south (Fig. 5.4).

Rice. 5.4 Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock

Determining the sides of the horizon using available tools. The situation becomes more complicated when on a cloudy day it is impossible to determine exactly where the Sun is. However, even in this case, there are ways to fairly accurately determine the sides of the horizon.

Rice. 5.5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a float and a needle

A flat round float with a diameter of 15-20 mm and a thickness of 5-6 mm is made from bark or a piece of wood. A shallow diametrical cut is made on the float, into which it is necessary to carefully place the needle and lower the float onto the existing water surface (any puddle; water poured into a plastic or wooden container; a small depression in the ground, lined with a plastic bag and filled with water from a flask, etc. ). Under the influence of earthly magnetism, the needle will certainly turn and, swinging between east and west, will be positioned with its tip to the north and its ear to the south, that is, along the magnetic force lines of the Earth (Fig. 5.5).

If there is no needle, then a thin steel nail or steel wire can replace it. But in this case, it is important to remember that the needle turns with its tip to the north due to the peculiarities of the manufacturing technology - the so-called “broaching”. With a piece of wire or a nail, the direction of pulling is unknown; therefore, it is unclear which end points to the north and which to the south. Therefore, for alignment, it is necessary to perform the same operations once near a noticeable landmark (anthill, growth rings, etc.) as with a needle, then mark the end of the wire or nail that will turn to the north. Interesting fact: even an automatic cleaning rod on a float of the appropriate size can play the role of a compass needle - the cleaning rod will always turn to the north with a thread (true only for AKs manufactured before 1984).

Determining the sides of the horizon using local objects. The sides of the horizon can be determined by local objects, but it must be remembered that the error in this case may be 15-20°.

• One of the most reliable indicators of the sides of the horizon are forest anthills - they are usually located at the roots of a tree with a thick crown that protects them from rain and always on the southern side of this tree. In addition, the southern side of the anthill is always flatter compared to the northern.
• The next, albeit not as reliable indicator as an anthill, is moss on stones and trees. Moss, avoiding direct sunlight, grows on the shady northern sides of stones and trees. Using this method, you need to be careful: since there is no direct sunlight in a dense forest, moss grows around the entire surface of the tree - at its roots and above. The same goes for stones. Accordingly, this method “works” well only on isolated trees or stones. Or, as a last resort, in open forests.
• The sides of the horizon can be determined by the annual rings of trees. To do this, you can find a free-standing stump or cut a small, free-standing tree with a diameter of 70-80 mm. Having carefully cleaned the cut, we will see that the core, that is, the center of the concentric annual rings, is shifted relative to the geometric center of the stump, and it is necessarily shifted to the north. By drawing a straight line through the geometric center of the stump and the center of the concentric annual rings, we get the direction to the north.
• The bark of most trees is coarser on the north side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the south.
• In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.
• On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi.
• On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
• In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the meadows, warmed by the sun's rays, and in the hot period of summer - on the southern, darkened ones.
• Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side.
• In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
• Snow melts faster on the southern sides of snowdrifts, resulting in the formation of notches in the snow - spikes directed to the south.
• In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.
• Clearings in forests are usually oriented in the north-south or west-east direction.
• The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side.
• The altars of Catholic churches (cathedrals) face west.
• The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
• Kumirni (pagan chapels with idols) face south.
• On Christian graves, the gravestone or cross stands at the feet, that is, on the east side, since the grave itself is oriented from east to west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star. Let us recall the remarkable property of the Polar Star - it is practically motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky and, accordingly, is very convenient for orientation - the direction towards it practically coincides with the direction to the north (the deviation from the north point does not exceed 3°).

To find this star in the sky, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which consists of seven fairly noticeable stars located so that if you connect them with an imaginary line, a bucket will be drawn.

If you mentally continue the line of the front wall of the bucket, approximately 5 distances equal to the length of this wall, then it will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

If you are in the mountains or in the forest, you may not see the bucket if it is currently located under the North Star. In this case, another noticeable constellation will help - the Constellation Cassiopeia. This constellation is formed by six fairly bright stars and represents the Russian letter “Z” when located to the right of the North Star, and the irregular letter “M” when located above the North Star.

Rice. 5.6 Finding the North Star in the sky

To find the North Star, you need to mentally draw a median from the top of the large triangle of the constellation (i.e., a straight line connecting the top of the triangle with the middle of the opposite side) to its base, which, when continued, will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

Determining the sides of the horizon by the Moon. The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night, when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the Moon in various phases (Table 5.1)

The table shows that it is most convenient to determine the sides of the horizon during the full moon. In this phase, the Moon is at any time in the direction opposite to the Sun.

Table 5.1

Movement in azimuths

Movement along azimuths is a method of maintaining the intended path (route) from one point (landmark) to another along known azimuths and distances. Movement along azimuths is used at night, as well as in the forest, desert, tundra and in other conditions that make it difficult to navigate on the map.

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using Adrianov's compass. By rotating the compass cover, the pointer is set to a reading corresponding to the value of the specified azimuth. Then, having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass so that the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the needle. At the same time, they stand facing the desired direction and, raising the compass to approximately shoulder level, sight along the slot-front sight line and notice some landmark on the ground in this direction. This direction will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using an AK artillery compass. The compass cover is set at an angle of 45° and by rotating the dial, the given reading is aligned with the pointer at the slot in the cover. The compass is raised to eye level and, observing in the lid mirror, is turned until the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the arrow. In this position of the compass, one sights through the slot and notices any landmark. The direction to the landmark will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with Adrianov's compass. Having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass to draw a zero stroke under the northern end of the needle. Without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the ring, direct the sighting device with the front sight towards the object to which you want to measure the azimuth. Aiming the front sight at an object is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from the sighting device to the object and back; For this purpose, you should not raise the compass to eye level, since this may cause the needle to move away from the zero stroke of the dial and the accuracy of azimuth measurement will sharply decrease. Having aligned the sighting line of the front sight slot with the direction towards the object, take a count from the front sight pointer. This will be the azimuth of the direction to the object. The average error in measuring azimuth with Adrianov's compass is 2-3°.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with an AK artillery compass. Having placed the compass cover at approximately an angle of 45?, sight the object. Then, without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the dial, observing in the mirror, bring the zero stroke of the dial to the northern end of the magnetic needle and take a reading from the pointer. The average error in measuring azimuth with an AK artillery compass is approximately 0-25.

Preparing data for azimuth movement. The route is marked on the map with clear landmarks at turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section of the route are measured. Directional angles are converted into magnetic azimuths, and distances are converted into pairs of steps if the movement is on foot, or into speedometer readings when marching in cars. Data for movement along azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map along the way, a route diagram (Fig. 5.7) or a table (Table 5.2) is drawn up.

Rice. 5.7 Route diagram for movement in azimuths

Table 5.2

Order of movement by azimuths. At the initial (first) landmark, using a compass, the direction of movement to the second landmark is determined by azimuth. They notice some distant landmark (auxiliary) in this direction and begin to move. Having reached the intended landmark, they again mark the direction of movement using the compass to the next intermediate landmark and so continue moving until they reach the second landmark.

In the same order, but in a different azimuth, they continue moving from the second landmark to the third, etc. On the way, taking into account the distances covered, they look for landmarks at the turns of the route and thereby control the correctness of the movement.

To make it easier to maintain the direction, you should use the celestial bodies and various signs: the straightness of a walking column or your own track when skiing, the direction of ripples in the sand and sastrugi in the snow (sastruga is a long and narrow snow bank swept by the wind), wind direction, etc. Based on the celestial bodies, you can confidently maintain the direction of movement, clarifying it with a compass approximately every 15 minutes.

The accuracy of reaching a landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring the distance. Deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction using a compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. If the direction of movement is clarified by the compass often enough, then the deviation from the route will be about 3% of the distance traveled.

Avoiding Obstacles. If there are obstacles on the route, then detour routes are marked on the map and the necessary data is prepared for this - azimuths and distances. Obstacles not taken into account when preparing data for movement are avoided in one of the following ways.

Rice. 5.8

First way is used when the obstacle is visible to the end. In the direction of movement, mark a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle. Then they go around the obstacle, find the noticed landmark and continue moving from it in the same direction; The width of the obstacle is estimated by eye and added to the distance traveled to the obstacle.

Second way. An obstacle, the opposite side of which is not visible, is walked around in directions forming a rectangle or parallelogram, the azimuths and lengths of the sides of which are determined on the ground. An example of such a bypass is shown in Fig. 5.8. From point A walk along the obstacle in the selected direction (in the example - in azimuth 280°). Having passed to the end of the obstacle (to the point IN) and having measured the resulting distance (200 pairs of steps), they continue moving along the given azimuth (in the example - along the 45° azimuth) to the point WITH. From point WITH enter the main route in the opposite direction azimuth AB(in the example - in azimuth 100°, since the reverse azimuth is equal to the forward azimuth ±180°), measuring 200 pairs of steps in this direction (distance CD, equal AB). Here is the line length Sun added to the distance traveled from point No. 2 to point A, and continue moving to point No. 3.

I decided to arrange my new home according to Feng Shui. So. In the north - an office, in the west - a children's room, in the northwest - a sector for storing equipment, in the northeast - a zone of wisdom... It turned out that everything is not so simple. I'm completely confused about arranging things according to the sides of the horizon. I had to brush up on my school knowledge.

How to determine the sides of the horizon of a house

In Feng Shui there is a special Bagua scheme. It can be downloaded on the Internet. Using the table you can easily find your way around the apartment. To do this, you need to draw a house plan on a small scale and apply Bagua on it in a mirror image. For example, if the windows face north, then in the diagram we connect them to the south.

How to calculate in which direction of the world the windows are located? The surest and easiest way is to find the coordinates of your home on the Internet or get them using the GPS navigator on your phone.
If this is not possible, then the best tool is a compass. But how many of us have such a device at home? It is likely that most housewives, like me, definitely do not have a compass. You can determine the sides of the horizon in the house (and not only) using your wristwatch. The main thing is that the sun shines on this day. The accessory must be positioned so that the hour hand points towards the sun. The midline between 12 o'clock and the hand will show south. Determining the remaining cardinal directions is a matter of technology.
Another way is by the stars. In the starry sky you need to find the North Star and face it. In this position, you will have west on your left and east on your right.

How to choose a compass

After all the efforts I made to put my house in order, I finally bought a compass. During the purchase, I learned that there are compasses:

• liquid;
• magnetic;
• electromagnetic;
• electronic.

I purchased the first option.

In my opinion, it is the most optimal. The operation of the liquid compass does not depend on batteries or satellite communications. At the same time, unlike a conventional magnetic compass, there are no errors. The main thing is to use it carefully so as not to break it.