Len - Big legal dictionary. Linen (land ownership) Land ownership in modern Russia

DICTIONARY-ENCYCLOPEDIA

Part Three.
Names of land holdings, estates
and other property of the feudal nobility.

G.Minusinsk

Allod (German Allod “Old German Al - full + od - possession, Frankish alodis) - Among the Germanic tribes and in the early feudal era in Western Europe - hereditary individual-family land property, which was at the free disposal of its owner (freely alienable individual-family land property ).
With the development of feudal relations, most of the small allods turned into dependent peasant holdings. Allods of large and medium-sized landowners - in benefices and fiefs. As a relic, allodial property also existed under developed feudalism.
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Alkabala (from the Arabic al-kabal collection) is a tax on trade transactions in Spain from the 12th century to 1845, and in its colonies from the second half of the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century.
The introduction of alcabala in 1571 in the historical Netherlands served as one of the reasons for the general uprising in 1572 in the north of the country.
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Alcazar (Spanish alcazar fortress, castle< арабского al-kasr) – название укрепленных замков или дворцов в Испании, чаще всего построенных в мавританском стиле.
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Almenda (German Allmende from Middle High German al(ge)meinde that which belongs to everyone) - among the Germanic peoples in the early Middle Ages, and later in other countries of Western Europe - land held in common by members of the community.
With the development of feudal relations, the almendas were captured by feudal lords.
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Annat (medieval Latin annata from the Latin annus year) - in Western Europe, from the middle of the 13th century, a one-time collection in favor of the papal treasury from persons receiving a vacant church benefice.
By the beginning of the 19th century, the collection of annats ceased in most states.
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Ark (Persian) – a fortress, a citadel in the medieval cities of Central Asia, for example: Bukhara, Khiva.
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Hacienda – (Spanish hacienda) is a large estate in most Latin American countries. In Argentina and Chile it corresponds to estancia, in Brazil it corresponds to hacienda.
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Banalitet (French Banalite, from banal original meaning - belonging to the lord) - in feudal Western Europe, originally - the monopoly right of the lord to any property of public importance (for example, a mill) for the forced use of which he charged peasants a fee.
Later - monetary collections from peasants for the right to carry out these business operations at home.
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Baojia (Chinese) - from antiquity until 1949 in China, a system of administrative and police organization of peasant households into special units: bao - 100 households and jia up to 1000 households.
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Beneficium (from the Latin beneficium - benefit), in Ancient Rome - any benefit, for example to a debtor; during the empire - also various tax benefits, grants from emperors, etc.
During the early Middle Ages in Western Europe, land ownership granted by a king or a large feudal lord for lifelong use to a vassal (without the right of inheritance) on condition of military or administrative service. With the development of feudal relations, benefices began to turn into hereditary feudal property - fief (flax).
In the Catholic Church - a church (profitable) position or land received by a clergyman as a remuneration and related items of income.
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Viceroyalty - since the 16th century, territories in the American colonies of Spain under the control of viceroys. Existed before the War of Independence of the Spanish Colonies of 1810-1826.
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Votchina, the oldest type of feudal land ownership in Russia, a family estate passed by inheritance. The emergence of estates dates back to the 10th-11th centuries. There were princely, boyar and monastic estates. In the 13th-15th centuries, the estate was the dominant form of land ownership, but from the end of the 15th century it came into opposition to the estate and with which it actually began to converge in the 16th-17th centuries and at the beginning of the 18th century merged with the estate into one type of land ownership - the estate.
In the future, “patrimony” is any feudal land property.
In Russian historical literature this term defined the complex
feudal land ownership of a feudal lord and the rights associated with it to the feudal dependence of the peasants and, as a rule, was divided into the master's economy (domain) and peasant holdings.
Within the patrimony, its owner and possessor, who had the right of immunity, had administrative and judicial power, and the right to levy taxes.
Synonyms for fiefdom are manor, estate, seigneury.
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Hacienda, hacienda, hacienda is a large estate in most Latin American countries (see hacienda).
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Captaincy General (German General from French general
from Latin generalis general, chief + French capitaine< позднелатинского capitaneus от латинского caput голова) – территории Испании в американских колониях в XVI веке – начале XIX века, находившиеся под управлением генерал-капитанов, назначаемых испанской короной.
Captaincy Generals were nominally part of the viceroyalty, but in fact they were independent political and administrative units (see viceroyalty).
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County - in the era of feudalism, a hereditary fief headed by a count (see count).
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Palace lands - in Russia in the 15th-18th centuries, lands that belonged personally to the Grand Duke or Tsar under the right of feudal private property; provided food and agricultural raw materials to the royal palace and palace households.
Since 1797, they have been transferred to the category of appanage lands (see appanage lands).
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Despotate (see despot) is the conventional name for a number of Greek state formations of the 13th-15th centuries, semi-dependent on Byzantium or actually independent, whose rulers were called despots.
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Despotia (from the Greek despoteia unlimited power) is a form of autocratic unlimited power - an unlimited monarchy, characterized by complete lack of rights for its subjects, as well as a state with this form of government.
Classical despotism - states of the Ancient East (Assyria, Babylon, etc.).
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Domain (French domaine "Latin dominium - possession) - in Western Europe in the Middle Ages, part of a feudal estate (patrimony), on which the feudal lord ran his own household, using the labor of dependent peasants or landless workers, also a set of hereditary land holdings of the king, which were covered by his political power, the so-called royal domain.
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Župa (Czech, Slovak zupa) is the name of an administrative-territorial unit among the southern and western Slavs around the 10th – early 20th centuries. In some cases, the administrative term “župa” was transformed into a toponym - a region in Bosnia, a region in Serbia and Dalmatia, etc.
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Zamindari (from the Persian zemindar (zemindari) landowner) is a land tax system introduced by the British colonial authorities in Northern, Eastern and Central India at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. This system asserted the rights of zamindars as hereditary landowners and established a permanent or temporary land tax on them in favor of the colonial authorities - the supreme owner of the land.
Zamindari was abolished in the fifties of the twentieth century.
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Iqta (Arabic) is a land plot granted to feudal lords in the medieval countries of the Near and Middle East.
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Iltizam (Arabic) is a tax-farming system for collecting feudal taxes in kind in the Ottoman Empire.
Officially abolished during the Tanzimat period, actually liquidated in 1925.
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Imamate (see imam) - The general name for Muslim theocratic states.
The Imamate was the name given to the state of the murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose at the end of the 1820s during the struggle of the peoples of the North Caucasus against the colonialist policies of the Russian Empire. Imams: Gazi-Magomet (1828-1832), Gamzat-bek (1832-1834), Shamil (1834-1859).
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An estate is a plot of land with an estate in Russia, mainly owned by nobles.
At the same time, there were also state, appanage, military (Cossack) estates.
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Empire (from the Latin imperium - power; state) is a monarchical state, the head of which is a monarch with the title of king or emperor.
States that had colonial possessions (British Empire, French colonial empire) were also called empires.
The colonial empire was Great Britain, which had a number of dominions and spheres of influence in many parts of the world. Under the influence of external conditions and the current situation in the world community, from 1911 to 1937, imperial conferences of representatives of Great Britain and its dominions began to be convened. The Imperial Conference of 1926 recognized the independence of the dominions in internal and external affairs. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster established the British Commonwealth of Nations (since 1947 - the Commonwealth of Nations) - an association consisting of Great Britain and its former colonies that gained independence. After World War II, meetings and then conferences of prime ministers of Commonwealth countries began to be convened.
In its modern form, the Commonwealth is an association of states: former dominions that recognize the English king as the head of state, and a number of other countries with different forms of government that have their own head of state - a kind of association between Great Britain and its colonies that were part of the British Empire. It consists of 53
former dominion and colony of Great Britain, now independent states. The first dominions in the Commonwealth were Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, and New Zealand. 13 colonial and dependent territories with a population of about 6 million people remain under British control, including Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, Anguilla (Anguila), the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, etc.
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Imperial city (German Reichsstadt) - in the Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) - cities subordinate directly to the emperor, and not (like “landed” cities, German Landstadte) to any of the feudal princes. In the south of Germany around 1250 there were about 70 imperial cities, in the north their number was small. Subsequently, imperial cities widely enjoyed the sovereign rights of the state, including the right to mint coins. In fact, they became independent city republics. Since 1489, imperial cities have regularly
sent their representatives to the Reichstag, which since then consisted of three boards:
-College of Electors;
-Council of Imperial Princes (German Reichsfurstenrat);
- collegiums of cities.
In the XIII-XIV centuries, individual cities-residences of bishops, such as Worms, Mainz, Speyer and Cologne, managed to free themselves from the power of their spiritual lords and began to call themselves “Free Imperial Cities” (German Freie Reichsstadt), subsequently this name was assigned to all Imperial cities.
By 1800, only 51 imperial cities remained, of which in 1803, in accordance with the so-called main decision of the imperial deputation - a plan for a new administrative division of the Empire, only six imperial cities remained: Augsburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Nuremberg, Frankfurt -Maine. In 1806, Augsburg, Frankfurt am Main and Nuremberg lost their status as imperial cities. A French decree of 1810 abolished the special rights of the remaining three Hanseatic cities. The Congress of Vienna, held in 1815, awarded the status of Free City to Bremen, Frankfurt am Main (until 1866), Hamburg, and Lübeck.
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Inam (Arabic Inam gift) - in medieval India - a form of unconditional hereditary land grant given by the Muslim rulers of India as a sign of favor to clergy or secular persons, as well as simply a gift from the ruler, often expressed in monetary form.
In medieval Iran, inam was a gift, a gift to influential people.
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Capitania (from the late Latin capitaneus) is an administrative-territorial unit in the 16th - early 19th centuries in Brazil and other colonies of Portugal - on the islands of Madeira, Ozores, Cape Verde (Cape Verde).
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Cartularies (from the medieval Latin chartularium collection of charters< латинского charta грамота) – сборники копий грамот, которыми в средневековой Западной Европе юридически оформлялись земельные дарения, в основном в пользу церкви.
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Copyhold (English copyhold from copy - copy + hold holding) is the main form of feudal peasant land ownership in England of the 15th-17th centuries - mostly for life; the right to this land tenure was confirmed by a copy-extract from the protocol of the manor court.
Copillholder peasants did not have the right to defend themselves in the courts, dispose of their allotments, and bore significant duties in favor of the lord.
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Copyholders (English copyholder literally holder of a copy) are feudal dependent peasants in England of the late Middle Ages; upon entering into use of the allotment, most often for life, they received a copy - an extract from the protocol of the manorial court (see manor), the holders of the copygold were deprived of the right to legal protection in the courts, disposal of the allotment, etc. without the knowledge of the lord (see leaseholders, freeholders).
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Principality, sovereign or vassal feudal state, or state entity headed by a prince.
Principalities arose among the Eastern Slavs and in Kievan Rus from the 8th-9th centuries. During the period of feudal fragmentation, large principalities called great principalities were divided into appanages. At the end of the 15th-16th centuries they became part of the Russian centralized state.
In the Russian Empire in 1809–1917, Finland (Grand Duchy of Finland) was called the Grand Duchy.
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A kingdom is a monarchical state, the head of which is the monarch – the king.
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Crown (from Latin) – in monarchical states – state, governmental.
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Crown lands are lands that became part of a monarchical state on the basis of the hereditary dynastic rights of the monarch.
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Kutyums (from the French coutume custom) - in medieval France the customary law of individual provinces, districts, cities, etc.
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Latifundism is a system of land ownership, the basis of which is large landowners' land holdings - latifundia.
Latifundism arose in Ancient Rome in the second century BC.
Remnants of latifundism have been preserved in a number of countries in Latin America (Ecuador, Brazil), Africa (South Africa) and some others.
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Latifundia (Latin latifundium from latus extensive + fundus land, estate) – large land holding, estate.
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Leasehold (English leasehold from lease + to hold) is a form of land lease in medieval England.
Tenancy; leased property.
Large leasehold developed into farmers' capitalist lease, small (peasant) leasehold became one of the objects of enclosure.
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Leaseholders (English leaseholder from lease rental + holder holder) are land tenants in England of the late Middle Ages.
Leaseholders received a domain lease - a large leasehold, or part of a domain - a small leasehold, for a period determined by the lord.
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Flax (German Lehn) - in Western Europe during the era of feudalism (mainly in medieval Germany) - land ownership (much less often any other source of income), which a vassal received from a lord on the condition of performing service, administrative or mainly military. At first, the term “flax” was often used in the same meaning as benefices, that is, it meant a conditional award for a period. Unlike benefice, from the 12th century, flax became hereditary possession (see also feud, fi, fief).
Flax was also the name given to the tax collected from the fief estate.
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Majorate (Latin major - senior), in feudal and bourgeois law, is a system of inheritance of real estate and, above all, land property, in which all property passes completely inseparably to the eldest of the sons, the heirs of the deceased. An estate that passes by inheritance to the eldest in the family or to the eldest of the sons.
This system is aimed at preserving and strengthening large land holdings.
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Manor (English manor, from Latin maneo - I stay, I live) is a feudal estate (patrimony) in medieval England.
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Mark (German Mark border) - in the Frankish state in the 8th-9th centuries, and later in Germany, a border administrative fortified district led by a margrave (see margrave).
In the Middle Ages, a mark in a number of Western European countries was a rural community, in which arable land was the individual property of members of the mark, and pastures, forests and other lands were common property.
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Minorate (“Latin minor junior”) is an ancient and medieval system of inheritance of property, in which it passes inseparably to the youngest in the clan or to the youngest of the sons of the deceased head. An estate that passes to the youngest in the clan or the youngest of the sons, in the order of inheritance.
It was used mainly among peasants.
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Monarchism is a political movement that recognizes monarchy as the only form of state power; commitment to a monarchical form of government.
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Monarchy (Greek monarchia - autocracy) is a form of government in which the supreme power in the state is concentrated in the hands of the sole head of state - the monarch, as well as the name of the state with this form of government.
There are several types of monarchy:

Unlimited (absolute) – characteristic of the slave and feudal system.

Limited (constitutional) - in which the power of the monarch is limited by parliament (constitution).

Currently, there are a number of states with a constitutional monarchy, for example: Great Britain, Norway, Denmark, Sweden.

Theocratic - in which the head of state is also the spiritual (religious) head.
Distributed in some Asian countries.
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Mulk (Arabic - possession) is a type of private property in the countries of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages.
In modern times - land ownership.
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Oprichnina - in Rus' in the XIV-XV centuries - a special appanage possession of women from the grand ducal family.
Oprichnina is the name of the inheritance of Ivan the Terrible in 1565-1572 with a special territory, army and state apparatus.
Oprichnina also called the system of internal political measures of Ivan the Terrible in 1565-1572 to combat alleged treason among the feudal lords (mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.).
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Horde (Turkic orda palace, tent of the sultan, shah) - among the Turkic and Mongolian peoples - a military-administrative organization, then a camp of nomads, in the Middle Ages - the headquarters of the ruler of the state.
In a figurative sense, a horde is a large and unorganized crowd of people.
As an example, we can cite the Mongol-Tatar feudal state, founded in the early forties of the 13th century by Khan Batu (1208-1255), the son of Khan Jochi and the grandson of Genghis Khan. Khan Batu was the leader of the all-Mongol campaign in Eastern and Central Europe in 1236-1243. Since 1243, Khan of the Golden Horde. This state included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Northern Caucasus, Volga Bulgaria, Crimea, Dasht-i-Kipchak. The territory occupied by the Golden Horde was huge and stretched from the Lower Danube and the Gulf of Finland in the west to the Irtysh basin and the lower Ob in the East, from the Black Sea, the Caspian and Aral Seas and Lake Balkhash in the south to the Novgorod lands in the north. The indigenous Russian lands and principalities were vassals of the Golden Horde and paid tribute. The center of the state was the Lower Volga region, where Byty founded his capital Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan), and from the first half of the 14th century the capital was transferred to another place, near modern Volgograd, and became known as Sarai-Berke (Lower Volga region).
Subsequently, the khans from the house of Batu stood at the head of the Golden Horde. In particularly important political cases, kurultai were convened - congresses of the military-feudal nobility and members of the ruling dynasty. State affairs were led by bklyare-bek (prince over princes), and individual branches were headed by viziers. The government structure was paramilitary in nature. The Golden Horde was divided into fourteen uluses - according to the number of sons of Jochi Khan. Under the khans Uzbek * (1313-1342, year of birth unknown) and Janibek ** (1342-1357, year of birth unknown) the military power of the Golden Horde reached its apogee , the army reached three hundred thousand people. In the sixties of the 14th century, Khorezm and Astrakhan separated from the Golden Horde, and Lithuania and Poland seized lands in the Dnieper basin. The Russian principalities dealt a crushing blow to the Tatar-Mongols in 1380
Kulikovo field. At the end of the fourteenth century, Tamerlane (Timur) (1336-1405) practically defeated the troops of the Golden Horde. After his campaigns the Horde
I have not recovered. In the 15th century, the Golden Horde broke up into a number of separate khanates: Siberian (20s), Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443); in the 40s - the Nogai Horde, and in the 60s Kazakh, Uzbek and Astrakhan Khanate.
In 1480, the Russians freed themselves from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, after an unsuccessful attempt by the Khan of the Great Horde (at one time the successor of the Golden Horde) Akhmat to achieve obedience from Ivan III (1440-1505, from 1462 Grand Duke of Moscow) - “standing on the Ugra” .
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

* Khan Uzbek (born? -1342) - Khan of the Golden Horde from 1313 to 1342, who temporarily strengthened the khan’s power. He introduced Islam as the state religion. He pursued a broad policy of pitting Russian princes against each other, and in 1327 he suppressed an uprising in Tver.
** Khan Janibek (born? - 1357) - Khan of the Golden Horde since 1342, son of Khan Uzbek. He continued his father’s policy of spreading Islam. In 1356 he captured Azerbaijan. Under him, the process of feudal fragmentation began in the Golden Horde.
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Pashalyk (Turkish pasalyk) - in the Ottoman Empire - a province or region that was under the rule of a pasha *.

* Pasha (Turkish pasa) is an honorary title for the highest officials in the Ottoman Empire. Until the mid-19th century, it was worn mainly by viziers and provincial rulers, and in the mid-19th century, until 1934, by generals of the Turkish army.
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Plantation farming is a large agricultural enterprise specializing mainly in the cultivation of industrial and food crops, mainly tropical and subtropical. It was widespread in colonies and dependent countries. Currently, it has been preserved in a number of developing countries as a sphere of investment of capital (see plantation).
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Plantation (from the Latin plantatio planting) is a large agricultural enterprise in which special crops are cultivated - sugar cane, cotton, tea, coffee, etc. (see plantation economy). Plantation is a large area, a piece of land occupied by one agricultural special crop (tea plantation, beet plantation, etc.).
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The local system is the provision of land holdings (estates) to feudal lords for military administrative service in Russia from the end of the 15th century to 1714. Initially it arose in the Novgorod land, by the middle of the 16th century throughout the main territory of the state.
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The local order is the central state institution in Russia in the mid-16th century - 1720. Allotted estates to the nobles, controlled changes in the sphere of feudal land ownership, produced
description of lands and population census, as well as the search for fugitive peasants. Central court for land litigation.
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An estate, a relatively conditional land ownership in Russia of the late 15th – early 18th centuries, provided by the state for military and public service, which was not subject to sale, exchange or inheritance.
In the 16th-17th centuries it gradually became closer to the estate and ultimately merged with it according to the Decree of 1714.
In the 18th-20th centuries, an estate meant the same as a land estate,
in another sense, the same as patrimony.
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Precarium (Latin precarium< preces просьба) –в раннее средневековье в Западной Европе – право пользования землей, предоставленное земельным собственником на более или менее длительный срок по обращенной к нему просьбе. Был формой вовлечения еще свободных крестьян в феодальную зависимость, особенно когда разорявшийся мелкий земельный собственник сначала «дарил» землю, а затем получал ее назад как прекарий и обязан был за это нести повинности.
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Pronia (from the Greek pronoia care) - in Byzantium of the 11th - 15th centuries, a lifelong, and sometimes hereditary, imperial grant to a secular monastery to collect state taxes from a certain territory. In the 13th century, land grants also began. The owner of the pronia, a proniar, was often required to perform military service.
Pronia is in many ways similar to the Western European benefice or fief.
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Raya (Turkish raya from the Arabic ra'iyah flock, flock) in Sultan Turkey is a tax-paying population. From the beginning of the 19th century in the Ottoman Empire, this name began to refer to the non-Muslim population.
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Rayatvari is a land tax system in India, in which the state became the supreme owner of the land, and ownership rights to it were assigned to peasants and other small land users (feudal lords) in perpetual lease. Introduced in the 19th century by the British colonial administration on part of Indian territory.
After the abolition of zamindari in republican India, rayatwari was extended to the entire country, and the amount of land ownership was reduced.
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Rayats (see raya) - in the era of feudalism in the states of the Near and Middle East, taxable rural and urban populations.
In Indonesia, people in general are called raiyat.
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Ranch (Spanish rancho) is an estate in Latin America.
In the USA - cattle breeding or other farm.
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Reduction (from the Latin reduction, returning, bringing back, pushing back) - the seizure of crown lands from the feudal aristocracy, carried out by the royal authorities in Sweden in the second half of the 17th century - led to the strengthening of royal absolutism, in Poland in the 16th century - it strengthened part of the gentry.
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A satrapy is a military-administrative district (province) in ancient and early medieval Iran, governed by a satrap.
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Seignoria (French seigneurie), in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, was a complex of feudal land ownership and the associated rights of the lord over feudal-dependent peasants.
In a narrower sense, it is one of the types of feudal estates, characterized by the small size of the domain or its complete absence.
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Shoen (Japanese) - in the 8th - 16th centuries in Japan - privately owned feudal estates.
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Signoria (Italian signoria, literally domination, power) is a form of political structure in a number of city-states of Northern and Central Italy of the second half of the 13th - mid-16th centuries, in which all the fullness of civil and military power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler - a signor (tyrant). At first, a lifelong dictatorship was established, later it turned into a hereditary one, such as, for example: the Medici in Florence, the Visconti in Milan. Also called tyranny.
In the 13th-14th centuries, in Italian city-communes, the “signoria” was a body of city government (college of priors).
Signoria in Venice - government under the Doge.
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A sultanate is a monarchical state headed by a sultan.
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Tankho is a conditional land grant in the Bukhara Khanate, Azerbaijan, Iran, Armenia in the 16th-early 20th centuries, in which the power of the feudal lord (tankhodar) giving the grant was limited to the right to collect land taxes from the peasants, who gradually became personally dependent on him.
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Timar (Turkish timar) is a small feudal land holding in the Ottoman Empire, conditioned by military service.
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Tyranny (Greek tyrannis, tirania), a form of political structure in a number of medieval city-states of Northern and Central Italy.
In a figurative sense - cruel and despotic rule based on oppression, violence and tyranny.
Tyranny as a form of government arose in the 7th-6th centuries BC in the process of the struggle between the clan nobility and the demos in Ancient Greece. In ancient Greek city policies, tyranny existed as a form of state
power established by force and based on the sole rule of a tyrant. The reforms of the tyrants were aimed at improving the situation of the demos, the development of crafts and trade, and contributed to the development and formation of society and the state.
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Tiul, tiyul is a conditional feudal holding, mainly land ownership, common in the 15th-19th centuries in the territory of Central Asia, Iran and some regions of Transcaucasia. In the 18th century it actually became a hereditary fief.
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Appanage – the share of a member of a princely family in the ancestral domain, as well as an appanage principality.
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Appanage principality (see appanage), in the XII-XVI centuries in Rus', an integral part of large great principalities, which was ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.
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Appanage lands are land property created in Russia in 1797 from palace lands that belonged to the royal family.
The appanage lands were in the use of appanage peasants, who were provided for purchase in 1863, and were also leased out. Appanage peasants, in the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century, are a category of feudal-dependent peasants, formed in 1797 from palace peasants. They belonged to the royal family, bore state duties and paid quitrents. Released
after the abolition of serfdom in Russia, but a few years later, in 1863.
Appanage lands, after the Bolshevik coup in 1917, were nationalized according to the Decree on Land.
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A hacienda (Portuguese fazenda from the Latin fasere to do, to build) is a large holding, land or livestock estate in Brazil. Similar to the hacienda in Spanish-speaking countries.
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Felony (English felony) - in English feudal law - an offense by a vassal, punishable by confiscation of the fief.
At one time in the Anglo-Saxon legal system - a special category of serious criminal offenses.
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Feud (Late Latin feodum, feudum "Old German fihu, fehu - estate, property, livestock, money + od possession) - in Western Europe in the Middle Ages, hereditary land ownership (or fixed income), granted by the lord to his vassal on the terms of service
(military, court, participation in administration and court, and others) or payment of customary fees; the most characteristic form of property under feudalism. The very concept of “fief” is also expressed by the terms fief - in relation to Germany, fi - in relation to England, fief - in relation to France. (See vassalage)
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Fee (English fee) is the same as fief or fief.
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Folwark (Polish folwark from German Vorwerk farmstead) - a landowner's farm, a small estate, a farmstead.
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Folkland (English folkland folk land) - folkland - in the early Middle Ages in England - the main form of communal land ownership. The structural composition of the folkland consisted of arable land, pastures, forests and other lands.
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Freehold (English freehold from free + hold – possession) – land ownership in medieval England, hereditary or lifelong. A freehold could be knightly, peasant, urban, or ecclesiastical.
Freeholder peasants had personal freedom, had a fixed annuity, the right of will, alienation of holdings, and protection in the royal courts.
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Freeholders (English freeholder from free – free + holder-holder) – lifelong or hereditary holders of land in feudal England.
Freeholders could be both feudal lords and townspeople and peasants.
Freeholder peasants, being personally free, at the same time paid a fixed annuity to the lord of the manor and had the right of free will, division and alienation of their holdings, as well as the right of defense in the royal courts.
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Fief (French fief) is the same as fief or fief.
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Caliphate, caliphate (from Arabic see caliph) is a Muslim feudal theocracy with a caliph (caliph) at its head. There were, for example, the Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates; caliphates in the Ottoman Empire, etc.

The name of an Arab-Muslim state, widespread in Western Europe since the 10th century, created in the 7th - 9th centuries as a result of Arab conquests and headed by caliphs.
In Turkey, the caliphate was abolished in 1924.
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Khanate is a country ruled by a khan. Khan's possessions.
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Settlement charters - in the medieval states of the Iberian Peninsula, agreements between the land owner and the inhabitants of the settlements founded on his lands during the Reconquista. These charters, like the fueros, recorded the rights, privileges and responsibilities of the settlers.
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Charter (from the Greek chartion from the diminutive Chartes paper, charter) is an ancient manuscript, as well as the material on which it is written: papyrus, parchment. In the Middle Ages and modern times, Charters were documents of a public legal and political nature: the charter of cities and communes, the Magna Carta, the People's Charter in 1838 in England, constitutional charters, etc.
The most frequently mentioned and well-known of the charters are:
Magna Carta is a charter according to which the English king John Lackland (1167-1216, king from 1199 from the Plantagenet dynasty) in 1215, under pressure from the barons, supported by knighthood and cities, was forced to recognize the restrictions of royal power in favor of feudal barons, and also provide some privileges to the knighthood, the top of the free peasantry, and cities.

The People's Charter of 1838 is the program document of Chartism, the first mass labor movement in Great Britain in 1830-1850, whose participants fought for the implementation of a People's Charter, the demands of which were related to the democratization of the state system.
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Khas, hass (Arabic) - the lands of the supreme ruler in the countries of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages - “the monarch’s own lands.”

Kingdom
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Emirate (from Arabic `amir ruler) - in the countries of the Muslim East, a fief, principality, state headed by an emir.
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Estancia (Spanish estancia) - In Chile, Argentina - a large estate, usually cattle breeding. In Brazil - hacienda, in other Latin American countries - hacienda.
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Yurt (from the Turkic jurt place of residence, parking lot, dwelling) is a family or clan leading an independent household, as well as the clan’s possessions. Yurt is the totality of the possessions of individual Tatar khanates (see Khanate).
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Under feudalism, the main means of production - land - was not the property of direct producers - peasants and artisans. It was the property of the feudal lords. The ownership of land by feudal lords was the basis of medieval feudal society.

Land was also feudal property in the case when it belonged not directly to the feudal lords, but to the feudal state, as was the case in a number of eastern countries, especially in the early feudal period. In the East, along with land, irrigation structures were also of great importance, without which agriculture was impossible in many Eastern countries. Other means of production - tools, draft animals, seeds, outbuildings, etc. were owned not only by feudal lords, but also by peasants and artisans. The ownership of peasants and artisans in these means of production was based, in contrast to feudal ownership, on personal labor.

Most of the land that belonged to the feudal lords consisted of plots that were given by the feudal lords for permanent use to individual peasants, which allowed the latter to run their own farms on this land. The direct producer in feudal society was thus not the owner, but only the holder of the land that he cultivated. The combination of feudal land ownership with small independent peasant farming was a characteristic feature of the feudal economy. But if the peasants had the means of production necessary to run an independent economy, the feudal lords could exploit the direct producers only through non-economic coercion, that is, resorting to one degree or another to violence. Only in this way could feudal lords realize their right of ownership of land. “If the landowner did not have direct power over the personality of the peasant, then he could not force a person endowed with land and running his own farm to work for himself” (Lenin). The personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords and the non-economic coercion that flowed from it thus constituted a typical feature of the feudal system. The forms and degrees of personal dependence of the peasants were very different, ranging from serfdom - harsh bondage - and ending with a simple quitrent obligation or some legal restrictions - class inferiority.

The forms that feudal land ownership took depended on specific historical conditions among individual peoples in different periods of the development of feudal relations. In Western Europe, the first, not yet developed form of feudal land ownership was allod. Initially, allod was the name given to a community member's land allotment. With the disintegration of the rural community and the growth of social inequality, the peasant allod in various ways (as a result of the ruin of free peasants and the forced alienation of their land plots by them, as well as as a result of direct seizures, violence, etc.) passed into the hands of the feudalizing secular and church nobility (and partly into the hands of individual wealthier peasants who emerged from among the free community members, who increased their land plots at the expense of the lands of their less wealthy neighbors), turned into a large land holding and acted as feudal land ownership.

The further development of feudal relations in Western Europe led to the emergence of a new form of feudal land ownership - a benefice, which was given for life under the condition that its owner perform a certain vassal service (most often military) in favor of the feudal lord (master) who gave this benefice. With the development of feudal society, benefices from lifelong ownership turned into hereditary ones and acquired features characteristic of a feud. A feud, or fief, is a hereditary land ownership associated with compulsory military service and the performance of certain other duties by the feudal lord in relation to a higher lord. Feud is a fully developed, most developed and complete form of feudal ownership of land. The social system, the basis of which was land ownership in the form of feuds, later became known as feudal.

In Russia during the feudal era, there were two main forms of feudal land ownership: votchina (initially corresponding to the Western European allod, as a large land holding of a feudal nature) and the estate (which had similarities to the Western European benefice, and in its further development - to the feud). Gradually, the estate and the patrimony legally came closer, merging into one type of feudal land ownership, similar in general to the Western European feud.

Corresponding forms of feudal land tenure also existed in the East. So, for example, in the countries of the Arab Caliphate - in Iran, Iraq, Central Asia and others - the form of feudal land tenure corresponding to allod was mulk. Benefice and feud (lena) here corresponded to iqta, at different stages of its development, and later to soyurgal. In China, the allod generally corresponded to zhuang-tian, and in Japan to shoen.

Feudal land ownership was not a form of private property, the disposal of which belonged entirely to one owner and was not limited by any conditions. Feudal ownership of land, as a rule, was conditioned by the performance of a certain service by smaller feudal lords in favor of larger feudal lords - their feudal lords due to the existence of relationships of personal dependence between them. These relations developed into a system of feudal hierarchy, that is, into a certain system of subordination within the feudal class itself, based on their ownership of land and, consequently, on the exploitation of direct producers - feudally dependent peasants. Feudal land ownership thus had a hierarchical structure.

In a number of countries of the East, especially in the early feudal period, state ownership of land and water (that is, canals, reservoirs and other irrigation structures) prevailed, and the feudal state exploited peasants - holders of land plots on state lands - directly through the state apparatus. But gradually, in the countries of the East, a significant part of the state land fund was distributed to feudal lords on the basis of conditional property such as benefice and fief. Thus, in these countries there simultaneously existed both state feudal ownership of land and land ownership of individual feudal lords.

I. LEN -a; m. [German] Lehn] East. 1. In Western Europe during the era of feudalism: hereditary land ownership granted to a vassal on the condition that he performs military service and performs other duties. Kuznetsov's Explanatory Dictionary

The land has always been the subject of numerous disputes and conflicts. It was because of the fertile areas located at the mouths of large rivers that the first wars began. Later, the feudal lords sought to add more and more territories to their possessions, subjugating them and their inhabitants. In this way they proved the fullness of their power. This is how states emerged and grew stronger. Thus, land ownership has always been one of the most important signs of wealth and power. This situation continues today.

Basic principles of land ownership in Rus'

The time when everything was common to all members of society did not last very long. It is human nature to want to enjoy the benefits of civilization individually and independently. It was because of this desire that land ownership began to take shape. What does it mean

Land ownership in Rus' is the possession of a plot by a certain person (both an individual and a legal entity) under the right of ownership, lease, etc.

During the reign of the kings, there were various categories of this concept. So, there was church, monastic, city, township land ownership and, of course, private. that Russia was considered a patriarchal country that was reluctant to adopt the best practices of foreign countries; its system of distribution of territory was much more civilized than, for example, in Ethiopia. There, all the land was completely in the hands of the autocrat, who leased it to his subjects in a certain way. All taxes and duties collected from it accumulated in the state treasury.

The concept of fiefdom

Until about the 15th century, there was one type of private land ownership in our country. It was their patrimony. If we compare it and land ownership provided on the terms of service, then there is undoubtedly a difference. A person disposed of the estate and could pass it on to his descendants. Hereditary land ownership in Rus' implied the creation within its borders of a certain administrative apparatus that controlled the collection of taxes and the organization of the work of peasants.

The “votchina” itself (paternal property) implied its main feature - the possibility of inheritance. This form of land ownership originated in Kievan Rus. As a rule, princes and noble members of the squad, as well as boyars, became the owners. After Russia adopted Christianity, church estates also appeared.

During the political fragmentation of the state, this form of ownership became the basis of feudalism. The lands belonging to the princes were constantly expanding through grants, ransoms and seizures of neighboring territories. This also led to a significant increase in the influence of estate owners on the political and economic life of Rus'.

Land ownership provided on the terms of service: what is it?

In the 15th century, the manorial system emerged. It implied the provision of land plots to persons serving for the benefit of the state. This was at the same time a reward for the conscientious performance of official duties. At the discretion of the sovereign, land ownership provided on the terms of service could be either temporary (that is, while the person works) or permanent (passed to the person for life).

What is an estate?

In the mid-15th century, a new form of land ownership arose in Rus'. An estate is a special ownership of a plot, the right to which was granted for military service. There were analogues of this concept in Europe. So, in Spain the estate was called a hacienda, and in Portugal - a hacienda.

In order to separate this form of land ownership from others, for example, from patrimony, it is necessary to highlight its main features. These include:

• Personal character. The estate was granted to a specific person, and was not assigned to a particular position.
• Temporary nature. A person owned an estate only for a certain period, which most often ended with the termination of government or military service.
• Conditional character. The estate was given to a person for a reason, but in exchange for the fact that he would fulfill certain duties in relation to the state.
• Inability to manage. A person could live on the territory of the estate, carry out agricultural work there, hunt, etc. But he did not have the right to transfer land ownership provided on the terms of service by inheritance, sell or exchange rights. If an official was dismissed from his place of work, then he was forced to leave the estate along with his property.

These are the main distinguishing features of the estate.

Land tenure in modern Russia

Nowadays, a lot has changed. Now a citizen of the Russian Federation (as well as any foreign person) can own a plot of land on the following grounds:

• ownership;
• right of lifelong inheritable ownership;
• lease right;
• right of perpetual use.

This possibility is legislatively enshrined in the Constitution of Russia (Article 35).

in the Middle Ages: land tenure granted to a vassal

Victim of the alfalfa cutworm

The basis of many fabrics

Agriculture

A herbaceous plant, from the stems of which spinning fiber is obtained, and from the seeds - oil.

Jean Marie (born 1939) French organic chemist, Nobel Prize (1987, jointly with D. J. Cram and C. Pedersen)

Administrative unit in Sweden

In medieval Germany, initially the same as a beneficiary, then the same as a fief

Dolgunets

Vassal's land allotment

Polytrichum

French organic chemist, Nobel Prize winner (1987)

Land allotment received by a vassal from his overlord

Fairy tale by H. Andersen

Medicinal plant

Plant on the state symbols of Belarus

The origin of the name of this plant is related to the Latin words “line”, “thread”, and now the Pskov and Smolensk regions are famous for it

. “I grow from the earth - I dress the whole world” (riddle)

. “they drowned, dried, pounded, tore, twisted, wove, put on the table” (riddle)

. "northern silk"

A plant from which you can make good bed linen

Vologda traditionally hosts two exhibitions: “Russian Forest” and “Russian...”

Industrial crop (obtain fiber, oil)

Medicinal herb

Oilseed plant, spinning crop

Herbaceous plant used in the textile industry

Natural fiber

Spinning culture

Curly and long

Vassal's allotment (old)

Shirt plant

Polytrichum or cuckoo...

Mochenets, raw or long-lasting

Plant, symbol of Belarus

Unit of territory in Sweden

Textile culture

Russian competitor to Uzbek cotton

District in Swedish

textile plant

Blue grass from the song

Area in Swedish

Technical culture

Kudryash, long grass (meadow grass)

Grass "loving bow"

Province in Sweden

A plant that deserves a beating

Vassal land ownership

Textile grass

spinning plant

Vassal land

Russian alternative to cotton

Blue in Pauls' song

Herbaceous plant of the flax family

Spinning fiber

Fabric made from such fiber

I grow from the earth - I dress the whole world (riddle)

Land ownership in the Middle Ages, fief

French organic chemist (Nobel Prize 1987)

. “I grow from the earth - I dress the whole world” (riddle)

. "Northern Silk"

M. east tendon, ligaments of cervical vertebrae; back of the head, collar, cervical spine. Knead, beat someone's flax, hit someone on the flax, hit someone in the neck. The ferret bites the hare's flax, cervical vertebrae and vertebrae. See also Lena

M. is a well-known fibrous plant from which threads and linens are made, Linium usitatissimus. Flax slate, first fiber analysis; Mochenets, second. Flax is dull, growing, durable, produces long but hard fibers. Flax moss, the fiber is short, soft and thin. Flax is a yielding plant whose yellow heads burst, dropping the seed. Rough combs of flax: rake, second combs, brush: brush; what remains is pure flax and tow. Siberian flax, wild, rerenne. Flax blooms for two weeks, ripens for four weeks, and seeds fly in the seventh week. Flax doesn’t get along with spring flax, not this spring flax. Linen will work, so will silk; If it doesn't work, click! If there is more flax, there will be more fiber (there will be more fiber). On woman’s rye, on grandfather’s wheat, on girl’s flax, water it with a bucket! at the first rain. You and I and flax are not divided, all together. the flax is not divided, and the edges are not dragged. Linen (in winter) does not dry for a long time, linen will not be good. This flax is in the last quarter. Mitrophania I sow flax and buckwheat, June. Deer are long flax. On Olena this flax, May. Yaritsa, flax, buckwheat, barley and late wheat this from Venison day, lower. symb. Mother Olena, early flax and late sheep; in the south the last sowing of flax. The flax is sown by seven deer. Lena to Olena, cucumbers to Konstantin. They beat me, beat me, promoted me to all ranks, put me on the throne with the king? linen. Little little ones (or little ones) went into the damp earth and found a blue hat? linen. Mountain or stone flax, asbestos, ammiant, fireproof, fire-resistant. Lenok, lenochek will belittle. flax humiliating Lenok south. plant Linaria vulgaris, wild flax, lungwort, poskrypnyak, vyzzlik, silk, acorn, nutrenik, cat eggs, traveler, raft, vydolnik. Kukushkin flax, plant. Adiantum, dry stem; also plant. Polytrychum. Magpie flax, magpie yarn, plant. Cuscuta, mulberry, mulberry, felt grass, dodder, dodder. Linum catharticum. Lennik m. toadflax w. Linaria vulgaris, plant. wild flax. Lenolistnik m. translation. plant Thesium linophilium. Linen, linen arch. Flaxseed psk. hard linen or alyan, made from flax. Linen. Flaxseed oil, extracted from flaxseeds. Flaxy, rich in flax, productive of flax. Flaxy, flax-like, flax-like. Flax and flax linen, linen clothing. Flax, flax cf. a field that used to be under flax; cutting under flax; a place where flax is laid, rotted, and dried. Flax m. plant. camelina, rapeseed. Lenyanitsa w. The Paraskeva flax workers, October day, crumple flax and bring the first fruits for butt to church. Lnomyalitsa w. flax grinder. Flax spinning mill establishment, factory for machine spinning of flax; flax spinning, related to this matter. Lazy orenb. collect from the world one piece of flax, as well as other supplies, according to poverty; talk esp. about priest's widows

County in Swedish

The origin of the name of this plant is related to the Latin words “line”, “thread”, and now the Pskov and Smolensk regions are famous for it

. “they drowned, dried, pounded, tore, twisted, wove, put on the table” (riddle)

Vologda traditionally hosts two exhibitions: “Russian Forest” and “Russian...”

Grass "loving bow"

Curly or long-haired