Genochronological dating of Jews of haplogroup E1b1b1. Haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (Y-DNA) Haplogroup e

The genus E1b1b1 (snp M35) unites about 5% of all men on Earth and has about 700 generations to a common ancestor. The ancestor of the genus E1b1b1 was born approximately 15-20 thousand years ago in the Horn of Africa (possibly Northern Ethiopia) or the Middle East (possibly Yemen).

For several millennia, the carriers of this haplogroup lived in their historical homeland in Ethiopia and were engaged in hunting and gathering. By race, the Hamites belonged to the Cushitic large branch of the Western racial trunk and spoke a Nostratic or Afroasiatic proto-language. According to the Dyakonov-Bender theory, in Ethiopia the Hamito-Semitic proto-language emerged from the Nostratic language approximately 14 thousand years ago.

About 13 thousand years ago, the climate on Earth began to change, and not for the better. The era of heat and high humidity is over. A long period of cold and dry climate ensued. It was probably these climate changes that contributed to the fact that the tribes of East Africa, belonging predominantly to the E1b1b1 haplogroup, began their movement from Ethiopia to the north, to areas more favorable for life: to Nubia, Egypt and the Middle East. In the Neolithic, the genus E1b1b1 spread to the Mediterranean region and South Africa. This dispersal contributed to the isolation of individual E1b1b groups. Separate peoples emerged with their own language and culture: Egyptians, Berbers, Libyans, Cushites, Ethiopians, Himyarites, Canaanites and South African pastoralists. The men of these new peoples developed new SNP mutations on the Y chromosome, which they passed on to their descendants.

Thus, sub-branches appeared in the genus E1b1b1-M35:

1. E1b1b1a (snp M78). Ancient Egyptians and their descendants, including in Europe: Mycenaeans, Macedonians, Epirotes, partly Libyans and Nubians.
2. E1b1b1b (snp M81). Berbers. Descendants of the Moors in Europe.
3. E1b1b1с (snp M123). Descendants of the Canaanites.
4. E1b1b1d (snp M281). Southern Ethiopians (Oromo).
5. E1b1b1e (snp V6). Northern Ethiopians (Amhara)
6. E1b1b1f (snp P72). Tanzanians or Ethiopians.
7. E1b1b1g (snp M293). Tanzanians (Datog, Sandawe) and Namibians (Khoe).

Haplogroup E1b1b1a (snp M78) is the main haplogroup of the ancient Egyptians.
The common ancestor lived 11-12 thousand years ago. The genus E1b1b1a (snp M78) stood at the origins of ancient Egyptian civilization.

During the Bronze Age, the Egyptians or their descendants moved to the Balkans. Currently, haplogroup E1b1b1a is most common among Albanians and Greeks, and is represented by Balkan subclades:

E1b1b1a2 (snp V13) - descendants of the Mycenaeans, Macednians and Epirotes and
E1b1b1a5 (snp M521) possibly descendants of the Ionians.
In addition to the above two subclades, three more are distinguished in the E1b1b1a haplogroup:
E1b1b1a1 (snp V12) - descendants of southern Egyptians
E1b1b1a3(snp V22) - descendants of northern Egyptians and
E1b1b1a4 (snp V65) - Libyans and Moroccan Berbers.

The descendants of biblical Mizraim made enormous contributions to world history, art, science and religion. Representatives of haplogroup E1b1b1a developed the first agricultural crops, invented one of the earliest writings, and founded one of the majestic states on Earth - Ancient Egypt.

The descendants of the ancient Egyptians were the Wright brothers - the creators of the world's first aircraft capable of controlled flight, the Portuguese navigator and explorer of West Africa Joan Afonso de Aveiro, US Vice President John Caldwell Calhoun and many other prominent people.

A new book on DNA genealogy shows the pattern of mutations on the Y chromosome of ancient human ancestors over hundreds of thousands of years, and shows how this pattern of mutations relates to human history. It is shown how these mutation patterns can be turned into chronological indicators, and ancient and relatively recent historical events can be dated in years, centuries, and millennia. At the same time, the chronometer that allows dating is not “external”; it is built into our DNA. Therefore, calculations in DNA genealogy are fundamentally protected from manipulation “from the outside,” just as, for example, the half-transformation times of radioactive elements in physics and chemistry are protected. No matter what you do, radioactive decay “ticks” in time, as it should according to physical laws. It’s the same in DNA genealogy – mutations “tick” according to the same laws, the fundamental patterns are the same. These laws are the methodological basis of DNA genealogy, and it, this basis, allows us to build the history of human development on all continents. So, the book shows DNA genealogy in haplogroups from A to T. In other words, the DNA genealogy of every male reader, without exception, is described, some almost literally, some from a bird’s eye view, and so that it turns out to be literal - you just need to do a test for haplogroups-subclades and haplotypes. Who is this book for? For those who want to understand their history and their ancestors, and how this personal history is built into the history of their ethnic group, country, and all humanity.

A series: DNA genealogy

* * *

The given introductory fragment of the book DNA genealogy from A to T (A. A. Klyosov, 2016) provided by our book partner - the company liters.

Haplogroup E

This is one of the most populated haplogroups of humanity; several hundred million men on the planet have its characteristic mutations in their Y chromosomes. “Characteristic mutations” rather than one characteristic mutation is not a disclaimer. Haplogroup E is determined by 151 mutations, and they all determine it equally. Of course, one of them was the first, in a particular baby, and from him, who survived and gave birth, the countdown of the life of haplogroup E began.

This makes it possible to illustrate several important points. The first is that it is not yet possible to establish which mutation was the first, since all of them are present in carriers of haplogroup E. Calculations based on SNPs show that haplogroup E formed approximately 63,500 years ago, and calculations based on mutations in haplotypes also give the same dating. Let us assume that all these mutations were formed in the descendants carrying the first mutation over many millennia, but thus all modern carriers of haplogroup E have these mutations in total. Perhaps not all carriers of the haplogroup have them, but modern methods have not yet allow such subtle differences to be identified. Therefore, all 151 SNPs are considered to equally form haplogroup E. Another feature of the classification is that many SNPs are synonyms of others; such synonyms are written through a slash, such as M96/PF1823, or CTS433/M5384/PF1504.

Haplogroup E includes 140 subclades, that is, sublevels of the haplogroup. We will give only 26 of them.

Tree of subclades of haplogroup E. According to ISOGG data.

Haplotypes of our contemporaries haplogroup E

The figure below shows the haplotype tree of the E1b1b1-M35.1 subclade (and lower subclades down to V92), constructed using 470 haplotypes in a 111-marker format. You can see how the tree diverges into branches, and if desired, each branch can be analyzed separately. The age of the entire tree, that is, the time distance to the common ancestor of the tree, is easy to calculate as shown in the sidebar. It turns out that the common ancestor of all 470 people lived about 10 thousand years ago. But this is the common ancestor of the M35.1 subclade, the eighth level on the subclade diagram. The common ancestor of haplogroup E, as reported above, lived approximately 60 thousand years ago.

The subclade, the haplotype tree of which is shown in the figure below, has the index M35.1. What does this continuation of the index after the point mean? Until recently, only the M35 mutation was listed in the nomenclature, and it referred to the mutation in nucleotide number 21 million 741 thousand 703, in which the original guanine turned into cytosine, that is, G>C. This mutation marks the E1b1b1 subclade (see diagram of subclades of haplogroup E). Later it was found that, by pure chance, in the Y chromosome with its 58 million nucleotides, it was in the indicated nucleotide that another, subsequent mutation occurred, in which the resulting cytosine turned into thymine, C>T. Naturally, this happened in the same haplogroup E, only in the descending subclade, namely E1b1b1a1b1a3. Therefore, the first mutation in time was designated M35.1, and the second - M35.2. There are several hundred such examples in the nomenclature, namely 429 out of 20,076 snips (approximately 2%) in the ISOGG nomenclature as of the end of December 2015.

Calculation of the lifespan of the common ancestor of the E1b1b1-M35.1 subclade (the tree of 111-marker haplotypes is shown below)

Manually calculating such a series of haplotypes is already too labor-intensive, since 470 haplotypes in a 111-marker format contain 52,170 alleles, that is, numbers in haplotypes, and all these alleles contain 27,187 mutations. Once the counting of mutations is completed, the next step is simple - divide 27187 by the number of haplotypes and by the mutation rate constant for 111 marker haplotypes (0.198 mutations per haplotype per conditional generation in 25 years), we get 27187/470/0.198 = 292 → 392 conditional generations , that is, 9800 ± 980 years before the common ancestor.

But, of course, no one thinks that way manually. No one is counting, not only because it takes a long time, but because there are only two people in the world who can process such series of haplotypes and know how to do it. In addition to the author of this book, one more is I.L. Rozhansky, together with whom we published a series of articles on DNA genealogy. And, of course, it makes no sense to manually count such series of data; a special program has been developed for this. She counts the number of mutations and carries out other calculations. For a given series of 470 haplotypes in a 111-marker format, the calculation is carried out within one second, and the program displays the time to the common ancestor: 9801 ± 982 years. As you can see, this is the same time that was obtained by manual counting, only without rounding. For the same haplotypes, but in the 67-marker format, the time to the common ancestor (without rounding) turns out to be 9241 ± 927 years, that is, the difference is only 6%, and both numbers coincide within the specified error. This is quite acceptable for such calculations. This shows, as in many hundreds of similar examples, that the computational apparatus of DNA genealogy is debugged and works reliably.

Fossil DNA of haplogroup E

So far, only one fossil haplogroup E has been found, subclade V13. But even she alone told an interesting story about Europe's past. DNA has been isolated from bone remains found in an ancient necropolis in northeastern Spain, with an archaeological dating back to 7,000 years ago. Of the six people in the burial, five turned out to be G2a (discussed below), one was E1b-V13.

Tree of 470 haplotypes in 111-marker format of haplogroup/subclade E1b1b1-M35 (and lower subclades up to V92).

Built according to the Project data.

So in 2011, we learned that carriers of the V13 subclade lived in Europe 7 thousand years ago. Three years later, a methodology was developed for calculating the formation times of subclades using a chain of SNPs, and it was found that the E-V13 subclade was formed approximately 7,700 years ago. But if we calculate by mutations in haplotypes, it turns out that the common ancestor of modern E-V13 carriers lived only 3450 ± 350 years ago. The figure shows the corresponding tree of haplotypes collected throughout Europe and surrounding areas. They are seen to form a symmetrical DNA family tree, indicating their descent from a common ancestor. All 193 haplotypes in the 67-marker format contain 2857 mutations, so their common ancestor lived 2857/193/0.12 = 123 → 138 conventional generations ago, that is, those same 3450 ± 350 years ago.

Tree of 193 haplotypes in 67-marker format of haplogroup/subclade E1b1b1-V13 (see subclades diagram in the text). Built according to the Projects, . The common ancestor of the series of haplotypes shown lived 3450 ± 350 years ago.

We dwell on this in such detail to show the gap in time between the dating of the fossil haplotype of group V-13 and the dating of the common ancestor modern speakers of the same group. The gap is three and a half thousand years. In fact, the rupture most likely began approximately 4,500 years ago and continued for a thousand years. This was the time of survival of the DNA genealogical line E1b-V13 until survival finally took place.

But why exactly 4500 years ago? How is this known? It is known because haplogroup E is not the only one that disappeared in Europe in those days, and was revived after one or two millennia, having passed the population bottleneck. Moreover, this revival often took place in other territories, on the periphery of Europe or beyond its borders. Haplogroups E-V13, G2a, I1, I2, R1a disappeared from Europe, and in time this coincides with two major historical events - the destruction of “Old Europe”, the name of which was introduced by the Lithuanian-American researcher Maria Gimbutas half a century ago, and was based on a large complex of archaeological data (in particular, hundreds of burned settlements of that time), and the settlement of Europe by the Erbins, carriers of haplogroup R1b, who created the so-called archaeological culture of the Bell Beakers (4800–3900 years ago). The Erbins came from the Iberian Peninsula to continental Europe 4800–4600 years ago, and settled it over the next 700 years. This led to the disappearance of almost the entire male “indigenous population” from Europe. But the women of “Old Europe” did not disappear; moreover, their numbers soon began to grow, as mtDNA fossils show. More than 4 thousand years have passed since then, but even now carriers of haplogroup R1b make up almost two-thirds of the population of Central and Western Europe. The rest are either descendants of tribes that escaped on the periphery of Europe (in the Balkans, Scandinavia, the British Isles), or descendants of later migrants to Europe. Among them were carriers of the E-V13 subclade, because the common ancestor of modern carriers lived approximately 3,500 years ago, and he revived the V13 genus in Europe. All Y-chromosomal figurative threads of modern E-V13 are drawn to it.

Let's conduct an interesting experiment on paper - let's check how the fossil haplotype V13 correlates with the haplotype of the common ancestor of modern V13, taking into account that there should be about 3500 years between them, this is the gap between “Old Europe” and “New Europe”. The fossil haplotype has the form

13 24 13 10 16 19 and 13 and 31 16 14 20 10 22

(fossil E1b-V13, Spain)

The ancestral haplotype to which the tree converges, in 67-marker format, has the form

13 24 13 10 16 18 11 12 12 13 11 30–15 9 9 11 11 26

14 20 32 14 16 17 17 – 9 11 19 21 17 12 17 20 31 34 11

10 – 10 8 15 15 8 11 10 8 12 10 0 23 24 18 11 12 12 17

7 12 22 18 12 13 12 14 11 11 11 11

(ancestral haplotype E1b-V13, 3450 years ago)

In the markers shown for the fossil haplotype, it is reduced to the following:

13 24 13 10 16 18 12 13 11 30 15 14 20 10 22

(ancestral E1b-V13, 3450 BP)

The four mutations between the haplotypes (marked) separate them by 4/0.0305 = 131 → 150 conventional generations, or approximately 3750 years, and place their common ancestor at approximately (3750 + 3450 + 7000)72 = 7100 years ago, which matches the dating of the fossil haplotype within the limits of calculation error. Here, 0.0305 mutations per haplotype per conventional generation of 25 years is the mutation rate constant for a 15-marker haplotype determined from fossil bone remains; The arrow, as usual, is a table correction for recurrent mutations. Thus, a direct descendant of the “Spanish” haplotype survived the population bottleneck and took over the baton of the genus, which has now formed the haplotype tree shown above.

Let's see where in the world, in what regions, haplogroup E is most common. This is primarily North Africa - in Morocco they make up 83% of the total male population, in Tunisia 72%, in Algeria 59%, in Egypt 46%. In the Middle East, there are fewer carriers of haplogroup E, but still quite a lot - in Jordan 26%, in Palestine 20%, in Lebanon 18%. In some European countries the figures are similar, but mainly in the south - in Kosovo 48%, in Albania 28%, in Greece on average 21%, but in central and southern Greece 30% and 27%, respectively, in Montenegro 27%, Serbia 18 %, in Italy 14%, in Germany 6%.

In Russia, there are only 2.5% carriers of haplogroup E, in the Baltic states there are even fewer - from 0.5% to 1%, in the Caucasus there are also few - Chechens have practically none, Armenians and Azerbaijanis have 6% each. The Tatars and Chuvash are higher – 10% and 13%, respectively.

As can be seen, the share of haplogroup E as a whole decreases when moving from North Africa, southern Europe and the Middle East further to the north and east. In Afghanistan and Central Asia it is almost gone. Thus, among 1023 haplotypes on the territory of historical Bactria, only 16 haplotypes of haplogroup E (1.6%) were found - among the Tajiks (2 people out of 198), Khorasans (4 people out of 20) and Hazaras (10 people out of 161).

Ashkenazi Jews stand out somewhat; their haplogroup E is about 21%. Actually, Einstein also belonged to this group. Perhaps that is why, when it was announced that Hitler had haplogroup E, the press immediately wrote him down as a Jew, although this is a completely insufficient argument.

At the end of this section, we will briefly examine a specific example - V.V. Zhirinovsky, who told the State Duma that he is a relative of Napoleon and Einstein. If this is so, then he has haplogroup E, since Napoleon and Einstein also have haplogroup E, like approximately 200 million other carriers of this haplogroup. Most Europeans who have haplogroup E (overwhelmingly subclade E1b-M35.1) have a common ancestor who lived approximately 35 thousand years ago. Carriers of haplogroup/subclade E1b-M35.1 include Napoleon, Einstein, Hitler, and, apparently, V.V. Zhirinovsky. If we narrow the search a little, we note that Napoleon has the subclade E1b1b1b2a1-M34, and Einstein has the subclade E1b1b1b2-Z830. Perhaps a common ancestor 35 thousand years ago is the level of relationship of V.V. Zhirinovsky, Napoleon Bonaparte and A. Einstein, with their at least 200 million relatives all over the planet.

This shows whether V.V. was right. Zhirinovsky, when he announced that he was a relative of Napoleon and Einstein. To answer this question more specifically, you need to define the term what a “relative” is. All people are, to a certain extent, related to each other, they all belong to the same biological genus and species. As reported earlier in this book, the common ancestor of all modern non-Africans lived 64 ± 6 thousand years ago. So, really, everyone is related to each other. But in the everyday sense, “relatives” are people whose common ancestor lived tens or hundreds of years ago, and all generations before him (or after him) are generally known and documented, or at least assumed - according to family legends, for example. In this sense, the carriers of haplogroup E, all several hundred million people, belong to the same genus, they had a common ancestor, and they all carry the haplogroup E mutation. All are therefore relatives. But not in the generally accepted sense.

In turn, E1b1b1a1 (M78) is divided into subclades: , and

Origin

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1 arose 9975±1500 years ago [ ] in the east of the modern Libyan Desert, which at that time was a fertile area.

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1-M78 comes from a mutation of the haplogroup that occurred in a person who lived 20.0 thousand years ago. The lifespan of the common ancestor of all living carriers of the Y-chromosomal haplogroup E1b1b1a1 is 13.5 thousand years ago (dates determined from snips by YFull).

In the following millennia, representatives of haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (M78) spread throughout the territory of Egypt, where they created the most ancient agricultural crops, invented one of the most ancient writings, and founded one of the oldest and most durable states on Earth -.

Starting from the era of the Old Kingdom, and possibly earlier, representatives of haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (M78) began to spread beyond Egypt. [ ]

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1-M78 was found in Moroccan samples aged 14.8-13.9 thousand years ago.

Spreading

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1 is found in Africa (East, North and South), Europe (South-East, South and Central, Novgorod region) and Western Asia. Currently, haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (M78) is distributed among the peoples of Southeast, Southern and Central Europe (Albanians, Greeks, Carpatho-Rusyns, Macedonian Slavs and Southern Italians), Northeast and East Africa (Egyptian Arabs and Copts, Western Sudanese , Somalis and Ethiopians) and, to a lesser extent, Western Asia (Turkish Cypriots, Druze and Palestinian Arabs).

Subclades

E1b1b1a1*

Currently, haplogroup E1b1b1a1* (M78), that is, without downstream SNP mutations, is extremely rare. A total of 13 individuals were found in different populations: Southern Egypt (2), Morocco (2), Sudan (2), Sardinia (1), Albania (2), Hungary (1), England (1), Denmark (1) and Northern -Western Russia (1).

The highest concentration of E-M78* (5.9%) was found by Cruciani et al. in 2007 among Arabs in the Gurna oasis near Luxor in Southern Egypt.

E1b1b1a1a

For Y-haplogroup E1b1b1a1a (V12), the most likely origin is southern Egyptian. The common ancestor of haplogroup E1b1b1a1a (V12) was born about 4300 ± 680 years ago, probably in Upper Egypt during the decline of the Old Kingdom. [ ]

Populations with the highest proportion of E1b1b1a1a-V12:

• Arabs of Southern Egypt - 44%,
• Arabs from the oasis (Bahariya) - 15%,
• Arabs of the oasis (about ) - 9%
• Arabs of the Nile Delta - 6%,
• northeastern Turks - 4%

E1b1b1a1b

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1b (V13) is currently distributed very far from the homeland of the ancestral haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (M78), mainly in South-Eastern Europe (Albanians, Greeks, Carpatho-Rusyns, Macedonian Gypsies, Macedonian Slavs) and, to a lesser extent, in Western Asia (Turkish Cypriots, Galilean Druze, Turks).

There are two versions regarding the place of occurrence of the V13 SNP mutation - the Balkans or Western Asia.

Although the proportion of E-V13 in populations of Western Asia is several times smaller than in South-Eastern Europe, their territories, as well as the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, can be considered as possible candidates for the ancestral home of the common ancestor of E1b1b1a1b-V13. After all, in the descendants of the Egyptians, the SNP mutation V13 could have arisen anywhere along the route from Egypt to the Balkans.

Regarding the lifespan of the common ancestor of haplogroup E1b1b1a1b-V13, the opinions of authors vary greatly. And this is connected only with whether these authors use evolutionary (or other) corrections in their calculations or not.

Lifetime of the common ancestor of haplogroup E1b1b1a1b according to authors who do not use evolutionary corrections:

• 2470-1000 BC e. — Dienekes Pontikos (based on 103 haplotypes from the Haplozone E-M35 project, 8 haplotypes from Imathia and 20 haplotypes from Argolis)
• 1720-1180 BC e. — V. M. Urasin (based on 336 67-marker haplotypes from various databases)

As you can see, the dates range from the 25th to the 4th centuries BC. e. For Europe this is the end of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and early antiquity.

However, recent archaeological finds allow us to date the appearance of the V13 SNP mutation to the 6th millennium BC. e. or to an earlier period. In 2011, Marie Lacan et al. studied DNA isolated from human remains of the early 5th millennium BC. BC, found in the Avellaner cave in Catalonia (Spain). The ancient burial belongs to the culture of cardiac ceramics, which spread in the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. from the Adriatic coast of the Balkans to. The Y chromosome DNA haplogroup of the remains of one of the six men was determined to be E1b1b1a1b (M35.1+,V13+).

Proportion of E-V13 and E-M35 (*) in some modern populations according to different authors: [ ]

• Kosovo Albanians - 44%,
• Achaean Greeks - 44% *
• Magnesian Greeks - 40% *
• Carpatho-Rusyns - 32-33%
• Argive Greeks - 35% *
• Roma of the Republic of Macedonia - 30%
• Epirus Greeks - 29% *
• Macedonian-Slavs - 22%
• Serbs - 19%
• Macedonian Greeks - 19-24% *
• Bulgarians - 16%
• Italians of Puglia - 12%
• Turkish Cypriots - 11%
• Druze Arabs of Northern Israel - 11%

Under the symbol * the share of E1b1b1-M35 as a whole is indicated, without taking into account subclades; without the symbol - the share of E1b1b1a2-V13 only. It is known that in populations of South-Eastern Europe, including among Greeks and Albanians, the proportion of E1b1b1a2-V13 is at least 85% - 90% of E1b1b1-M35.

E1b1b1a1c

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1c (V22) appeared in Central Egypt or the Nile Delta around 3125 BC. e. (±600 years) [ ] Later, representatives of haplogroup E1b1b1a1c (V22) settled from Northern Egypt in different directions, mainly to the south (among the inhabitants of Ethiopia - 25%), as well as to the west (Morocco - 7-8%), to the east (Palestine - 6, 9%) and to the north (Sicily - 4.6%).

Populations with the highest proportion of E1b1b1a1c-V22:

• Ethiopians of different nationalities - 25%
• Arabs from the Bahariya oasis in Central Egypt - 22%
• Arabs of the Nile Delta - 14%

E1b1b1a1d

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1d (V65) is common among the Berbers and Arabs of Morocco, found among the Arabs of Libya, the Berbers of Egypt and, to a lesser extent, among the Italians of Sicily and Sardinia

SNP V65 probably arose 2625±400 years ago, that is, in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in Morocco or Libya among immigrants from Egypt. They may have arrived there during the Libyan military campaigns of the 13th-12th centuries BC. e. [ ]

E1b1b1a1e

Haplogroup E1b1b1a1e (M521) is present only in the Balkans so far, and has so far been found in only two people (two Athenian Greeks).

Notes

Literature

• Cruciani et al., "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa", T. 74: 1014-1022, PMID 15042509, :10.1086/386294 , . Retrieved April 5, 2011.
• Cruciani et al., "Tracing Past Human Male Movements in Northern/Eastern Africa and Western Eurasia: New Clues from Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12", Molecular Biology and Evolution T. 24: 1300-1311, :10.1093/molbev/msm049 , Also see.
• Battaglia et al. (2008), "Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in southeast Europe", European Journal of Human Genetics, DOI 10.1038/ejhg.2008.249

• Vadim Urasin (June 2009), "Geographical assignment of some branches of the phylogenetic tree E1b1b1a2-V13", T. 1 (1): 14-19 , . Retrieved April 5, 2011.
• Lacan et al. (October 31, 2011), "Ancient DNA suggests the leading role played by men in the Neolithic dissemination", The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) T. 108 (44), :10.1073/pnas.1113061108 ,

External Relations

Phylogenetic tree

Projects

• Project "Ytree" of the discussion forum "Molecular Genealogy". Haplogroup E1b1b1a. (unavailable link)

(in human population genetics, the science that studies the genetic history of mankind) - a large group of similar haplotypes, which are a series of alleles on non-recombining sections of the Y chromosome. Halpogroups are divided into Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) and mitochondrial (mt-DNA). Y-DNA is the direct paternal line, i.e. son, father, grandfather, etc., and mt-DNA is the direct maternal line, i.e. daughter, mother, grandmother, great-grandmother, and so on. The term "haplogroup" is widely used in genetic DNA genealogy.

Haplogroup R1a1 consists of about 300 million men. The first common ancestor of modern R1a1 carriers lived about 300 generations ago.

Distribution of haplogroup R1a:
The percentage shows the share of R1a from the total number of the ethnic group

• Russians 48%


• Poles 56%


• Ukrainians 54%


• Belarusians 51%


• Czechs 34%


• Kyrgyz 63%


• Shors 56%


• Altaians 54%


• Chuvash 31.5%


• Tajiks 53%


• Punjabis 54% (Pakistan-India)


• India as a whole 30%, upper castes 43%

It arose about 15,000 years ago in Asia and subsequently split into several subclades, or, as they are also called, daughter haplogroups. We will look at the main ones - Z283 and Z93. R1a1-Z93 is an Asian marker, characteristic of Turks, Jews, and Indians. With the participation of haplogroup R1a1-Z93, the wheel was invented in the steppe, the first carts were constructed and the horse was domesticated. These were the cultures of the Andronovo circle. The haplogroup quickly mastered the entire strip of Eurasian steppes from the Caspian Sea to Transbaikalia, breaking up into many different tribes with different ethnocultural characteristics.

R1a1-Z283 is a European marker and is characteristic for the most part of the Slavs, but not only, the Scandinavians and the British also have their own separate subclades. In general, today the ancient haplogroup R1a1 is most characteristic of Slavic, Turkic and Indian ethnic groups.

Excavations of the “Country of Cities” in the Southern Urals confirmed that already about 4000 years ago in the fortified settlement of Arkaim there were premises for personal and public use, residential and workshops. In some rooms, not only pottery workshops were discovered, but also metallurgical production.

During the excavations, about 8,000 square meters were uncovered. m of the settlement area (about half), the second part was studied using archaeomagnetic methods. Thus, the layout of the monument was completely established. Here the reconstruction method was used for the first time in the Trans-Urals, and L.L. Gurevich made drawings of a possible type of settlement. R1a1-Z93 was probably one of the main haplogroups in Arkaim and Sintasht.

Currently, most of Europe speaks Indo-European languages, while the haplogroup R1b more specific to Western Europe, and R1a- Eastern Europe. In countries closer to central Europe there are both of these haplogroups. So haplogroup R1a occupies about 30% of the population of Norway, and about 15% in East Germany - apparently the remnants of direct Y-lines of the Polabian Slavs once assimilated by the Germans.

In the second millennium BC, presumably due to climate change or as a result of military strife, part of R1a1 (subclade Z93 and other haplogroups of Central Asia) began to migrate to the south and east beyond the steppe, part (subclade L657) went towards India and, joining to local tribes, took part in the creation of a caste society. Those distant events are described in the oldest literary source of humanity - the Rigveda.

The other part began to move towards the Middle East. On the territory of modern Turkey, they allegedly founded the Hittite state, which successfully competed with ancient Egypt. The Hittites built cities, but could not become famous for the construction of huge pyramids, since, unlike Egypt, the Hittite society was a society free people, and the idea of ​​using forced labor was alien to them. Hittite state disappeared suddenly, swept away by a powerful wave of barbarian tribes known as the "peoples of the sea." In the middle of the last century, archaeologists found a rich library of clay tablets with Hittite texts; the language turned out to belong to the Indo-European group of languages. This is how we gained detailed knowledge about the first state, part of whose male lines supposedly consisted of haplogroup R1a1-Z93.
Slavic subclades of the haplogroup R1a1-Z283 form their own cluster of haplotypes, which are completely unrelated to any Western European subclades haplogroup R1a, nor Indo-Iranian and the separation of European speakers of R1a1-Z283 with Asian R1a1-Z93 occurred approximately 6,000 years ago.

In October 539 (BC), the Iranian Persian tribe captured Babylon, the Persian leader Cyrus decided not to leave, but to seriously settle in the captured city. Subsequently, Cyrus managed to significantly expand his possessions, and thus the great Persian Empire arose, which lasted longer than all the empires in the world - 1190 years! In 651 AD, Persia, weakened by civil strife, fell under the onslaught of the Arabs, and this may have led to a change in the haplogroup composition of the population. Now in modern Iran haplogroup R1a makes up approximately 10% of the population.

Three world religions are associated with the Indo-Aryans - Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster was a Persian and possibly a carrier of R1a1, and Buddha came from the Shakya tribe of Hindus, among whose modern representatives haplogroups O3 and J2 were found.

Most peoples consist of many haplogroups, and there is no genus that dominates the rest. There is also no connection between the haplogroup and a person’s appearance and, as can be seen, many representatives of the haplogroup R1a1 They even belong to different races. To many R1a1-Z93 are characterized by Mongoloid features (Kyrgyz, Altaians, Khotons, etc.), while carriers of R1a1-Z283 have a mostly European appearance (Poles, Russians, Belarusians, etc.). A large number of Finnish tribes have high percentages haplogroup R1a1, some of which were assimilated with the arrival of Slavic colonists in the 9th century.

Achievements that R1a1 may be related to:

The wheel, carts, horse taming, metallurgy, trousers, boots, dresses, the world's first paved "autobahn" with a length of more than 1000 km with "refueling" stations - replacing horses, and much more.

It is difficult to tell the entire history of the first Indo-Europeans in a short article; only a few historical fragments can awaken interest in the history of the ancient ancestors of the Slavs. Type the words in the search engine Indo-Aryans, Turks, Slavs, Scythians, Sarmatians, Persia, and you will plunge into a fascinating journey through the glorious history of the Indo-European and Slavic peoples.

Haplogroup tree.

Until 2007, no one had carried out detailed reconstructions of childbirth, no one had come up with this idea, and it was not possible to solve such a grandiose task. Many population geneticists have worked with small samples of short 6-marker haplotypes, which allow them to obtain general genographic ideas about the distribution of haplogroups.

In 2009, a professional population geneticist set out to build a detailed family tree of this haplogroup. Faced with a number of problems, for example, calculating large samples of extremely long haplotypes using conventional methods was impossible due to the astronomical number of operations, not a single computer was able to sort through the required number of combinations, but thanks to resourcefulness and the desire to build a tree of one’s haplogroup, these problems were overcome.
After R1a1 many haplogroups began to create their trees.

The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.

Haplogroup R1b

Haplogroup R1b is a parallel subclade to haplogroup R1a. The founder of haplogroup R1b was born about 16,000 years ago in central Asia from the parent genus R1. About 10,000 years ago, haplogroup R1b split into several subclades, which began to diverge in different directions. Some scientists associate the eastern branch - subclade R1b-M73 with the ancient Tocharians, who took part in the ethnogenesis of such a people as the modern Uyghurs.

Promotion haplogroup R1b westward into Europe probably occurred in several stages. Some may be associated with Neolithic migrations from Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, and some with post-Neolithic migrations and the spread of the archaeological culture of the Bell-shaped Beakers.
There is also a version about migration along the North African coast to the Strait of Gibraltar, with further transportation to the Pyrenees in the form of the archaeological culture of the Bell Beakers - but this hypothesis is too much of a stretch. In any case, most European representatives of haplogroup R1b have the P312 snip, which definitely originated in Europe.

After Egyptian scientists analyzed the mummy Tutankhamun, it was found that Pharaoh turned out to be a representative of the haplogroup R1b.

Now the majority of representatives haplogroup R1b1a2 lives in Western Europe, where haplogroup R1b1a2 is the main haplogroup. In Russia, only the Bashkir people have a large percentage of this haplogroup. In the Russian people, haplogroup R1b makes up no more than 5%. During the Peter and Catherine eras, a state policy was pursued to massively attract foreign specialists from Germany and the rest of Europe; many Russian R1b are their descendants. Also, some part could have entered the Russian ethnic group from the East - this is primarily the R1b-M73 subclade. Some R1b-L23 may be migrants from the Caucasus, where they came from Transcaucasia and Western Asia.

Europe

Modern concentration haplogroup R1b maximum in the territories of the migration routes of the Celts and Germans: in southern England about 70%, in northern and western England, Spain, France, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more. And also, for example, among the Basques - 88.1%, Spaniards - 70%, Italians - 40%, Belgians - 63%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9% and others.

In Eastern Europe haplogroup R1b much less common. Czechs and Slovaks - 35.6%, Latvians - 10%, Hungarians - 12.1%, Estonians - 6%, Poles - 10.2%-16.4%, Lithuanians - 5%, Belarusians - 4.2% , Russians - from 1.3% to 14.1%, Ukrainians - from 2% to 11.1%.

In the Balkans - Greeks - from 13.5% to 22.8%, Slovenes - 21%, Albanians - 17.6%, Bulgarians - 17%, Croats - 15.7%, Romanians - 13%, Serbs - 10, 6%, Herzegovinians - 3.6%, Bosnians - 1.4%.

Asia

In the Southern Urals it is significantly widespread among the Bashkirs - about 43%.

In the Caucasus, Digora was found among Ossetians - 23% and Armenians - 28.4%.

In Turkey it reaches 16.3%, Iraq - 11.3% and in other countries of Western Asia.

In Central Asia, it was found, in particular, in Turkmens - 36.7%, Uzbeks - 9.8%, Tatars - 8.7%, Kazakhs - 5.6%, Uyghurs - from 8.2% to 19.4%

In Pakistan - 6.8%, in India it is insignificant - 0.55%.

Africa

Among Algerian Arabs from Oran - 10.8%, Tunisian Arabs - 7%, Algerian Berbers - 5.8%, in Morocco - about 2.5%, in sub-Saharan Africa widespread in Cameroon - about 95% (subclade R1b-V88) .

Abstract: Using 12 marker haplotypes of the Y-chromosome (240 haplotypes in total), genochronological dating of 13 common ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews, carriers of haplogroup E1b1b1, was performed. The common ancestors of most of those tested lived in the 14th to 18th centuries AD. The geography of haplogroup E1b1b1 is considered. Two methods have been proposed for analyzing the structure of haplotype samples.

Key words: Jews, population genetics, genochronology, haplogroup E1b1b1(M35).

1. Introduction

Results of genochronological dating of clusters of haplogroup E1b1b1 in tabular form/

1. Introduction

The author of the publication [Aliev, 2010] performed genochronological dating of clusters of haplotypes of the lines of the E1b1b1(M35) Y-chromosome haplogroup using the database. They characterize Ashkenazi Jews along the male line. Dating was performed using 37 and 67 marker haplotypes. For four clusters of haplotypes, the life dates of their common ancestors were obtained - 9-11 centuries, for the other two clusters - 2-3 centuries AD. These dates are linked to the history of the Jews. However, today some important methodological issues of genochronological dating have not yet been resolved. The main one is the reliable identification of clusters of haplotypes going back to common ancestors. In the publication [Aliev, 2010], the principles of identifying dateable haplotype clusters and their structure are not considered. Obviously, its author believes that there are no problems in this matter and, therefore, the technical part of genochronological dating can not be presented in the article. It is enough to provide a link to a perfectly organized database and anyone who knows the basics of genochronological dating can do it themselves. We thought it would be interesting to do this.

2. Features of the genetic portrait of Jews

An array of DNA data on Jews is given in the publication. Haplogroups have low resolution. The sample includes Ashkenazi Kohanim (76 people), Ashkenazi Levites (60 people), Ashkenazi Israelites (100 people), Sephardic Kohanim (69 people), Sephardic Levites (31 people), and Sephardic Israelites (63 people). They are dominated by carriers of haplogroup J: 86.8%, 10.0%, 37.0%, 75.4%, 32.3%, 36.5%. Carriers of haplogroup E*(xE3a) among Jews are 4.0%, 20.0%, 22.0%, 4.4%, 9.7% and 19.1%. In addition, for comparison, the results of DNA testing of Germans (sample of 88 people), Norwegians (83 people), Lusatian Serbs (112 people) and Belarusians (360 people) are presented. Their carriers of haplogroup E*(xE3a) are 3.4%, 1.2%, 6.3% and 4.6%. These data provide only the most general idea of ​​the geography of haplogroup E.

High-resolution DNA data for Jews is presented in the publication. They include haplogroups and haplotypes of 1575 Jews, including 215 Kohanim, 154 Levites, 738 Israelites and 468 who do not know which of the three castes they belong to. Data on the frequencies of haplogroups in tabular form are given only for Kohanim and Israelites, without dividing them into Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi. No carriers of haplogroup E1b1b1(M35) were identified among the Kohanim. Among the Israelis there are 20 (2.7%). The total number of carriers of haplogroup E among the Kohanim is 15 (7.0%), among the Israelites - 138 (18.7%). There are 162 (75.3%) haplogroup carriers among the Kohanim and 265 (35.9%) among the Israelites.

Thus, the dating of Jews of haplogroup E1b1b1 does not in any way characterize the stages of the formation of the priestly caste of the Kohanim. There are no carriers of this haplogroup among them. Regarding the other priestly caste - the Levites, we have no data. But it can be unequivocally stated that the dating of Jews of haplogroup E1b1b1 characterizes the stages of the formation of the Israelites, the largest caste of Jews.

3. Results of genochronological dating

Genochronological dating of Jews of haplogroup E1b1b1 was carried out based on our understanding of the principles of identifying clusters of haplotypes going back to a common ancestor. In this case, 12 marker haplotypes were taken into account (DYS393, DYS390, DYS19, DYS391, DYS385a, DYS385b, DYS426, DYS388, DYS439, DYS389-1, DYS392, DYS389-2). This significantly expands the statistical dating base, compared to dating using 37 and 67 marker haplotypes, which allows us to better see the structure of the samples. The mutation rate is assumed to be 0.002 per marker per generation [Tyurin, 2009, Mutation rates]. “Generation” is taken to be 25 years. The year 1980 was taken as the estimated year (assuming that the average age of those tested is approximately 30 years).

The clusters of lines E1b1b1*, E1b1b1a3*, E1b1b1c1* and E1b1b1c1a identified in the haplotype groups are shown in Tables 1-6. Summary dating results are in Table 7. 14 haplotype clusters were identified, 13 of them were dated. In total, 240 haplotypes were taken into account when dating Jews. The author of the publication [Aliev, 2010] took into account 101 haplotypes. The dating results are recalculated into a parameter characterizing the number of Jews whose dated ancestors lived in a particular century. When calculating it, the number of haplotypes of clusters whose common ancestor date fell on the turn of the century (dates “1500” and “1600”) was divided in equal proportions between the conjugate centuries.

4. Geography of lines E1b1b1*, E1b1b1a3*, E1b1b1c1* and E1b1b1c1a

The database contains the surnames and area of ​​residence of their closest ancestors (origin) for all tested Jews. The ancestors of Jews were compactly grouped on the territory of Ukraine - 39, Poland - 30, Russia - 23, Belarus - 21, Lithuania - 20, and Germany - 18. A total of 154 (61.2%). Other European countries reported 38 (15.8%) tested. Three of them indicated Latin America, two – Israel (?). 43 (17.9%) Jews did not indicate the place of residence of their ancestors. Based on these data, the following conclusions can be drawn. The ancestors of the largest number of Jews tested lived in the region where Ashkenazis settled at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The latter are characterized by the sample of haplotypes under consideration. The same conclusion, but based on the names of those tested, was made by the author of the publication [Aliev, 2010].

In the haplotypes of the database in the lines E1b1b1*, E1b1b1a3*, E1b1b1c1* and E1b1b1c1a, “non-Jewish” groups were also identified. Their geography is fundamentally different from the geography of Jewish groups. The exception is group E1b1b1c1a-B. The statistical calculations below do not take it into account. In total, the groups under consideration include 223 haplotypes. The territory of Ashkenazi settlement as the place of residence of their ancestors was indicated by 24 (10.8%) tested non-Jews, including 20 in Germany and 1 each in Poland, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. Other European countries reported 110 (49.3%) tested. Middle East - 15, other countries - Asia and Africa - 12, countries of the American continent - 9. 77 (34.5%) of those tested did not indicate the homeland of their ancestors. Let's fix one more number. The territory of Greece, Turkey and Cyprus as the place of residence of their ancestors was indicated by 7 non-Jews tested. That is, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East were indicated by 22 (9.9%) non-Jews. This figure does not fit well with the idea that these regions were the place of initial settlement of carriers of the E1b1b1 haplogroup [Aliev, 2010].

The ancestors of the tested non-Jews who fell into the E1b1b1c1a-B group (53 haplotypes in total) were compactly grouped in the same territory as the ancestors of the Jews: Ukraine - 12, Poland - 5, Russia - 2, Belarus - 6, Lithuania - 4, and Germany – 6. Total 33 (66.0%). 3 respondents each indicated the place of residence of their ancestors as Slovakia and Israel (?), 1 each indicated Holland and England. 9 people tested did not indicate the place of residence of their ancestors. If we exclude from the groups of Jews those who did not indicate the place of residence of their ancestors, we obtain that 78.2% of them come from the territory of Ashkenazi residence. For the non-Jewish group E1b1b1c1a-B the figure is 75.0%.

Dating the common ancestors of the two clusters of the E1b1b1c1a-B group (Table 8) gave the same figures as for most Jewish clusters. This group has a striking feature. Its first cluster coincides with the first cluster of the E1b1b1c1a-A group. The modal and 5 associated haplotypes coincide. This makes it possible to combine the two specified clusters. Dating of the combined cluster of the E1b1b1c1a lineage (72 haplotypes in total) gave a lifetime of the common ancestor of 16.8 generations or 420 years ago. This is 1560. Let us note the high convergence of the results of assessing the life of a common ancestor, two clusters formed on a national basis on the basis of a territorially isolated united cluster. For Jews it is 18.0, for non-Jews it is 15.5 generations ago. Note that the coincidence of the haplotype, which we did not include in the clusters of the E1b1b1c1a-B group (Table 8), with one of the similar haplotypes of the E1b1b1c1a-A group is associated with an error in sampling. These are the test results of the same person (last name - Caligur, test number - 71213, place of residence of ancestors is not indicated).

5. Interpretation of dating results

1. The common ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews, carriers of the E1b1b1*, E1b1b1a3*, E1b1b1c1* and E1b1b1c1a lines, are dated. The common ancestors of most of those tested lived in the 14th to 18th centuries.

2. The ancestors of non-Jews of these lines lived mainly outside the historical region of Ashkenazi settlement.

3. One of the clusters of non-Jews of group E1b1b1c1a-B is identical to the cluster of Jews of group E1b1b1c1a-A.

At the same time, based on the results of the database analysis, it was not possible to localize the geographic region of the original residence of the carriers of the E1b1b1 haplogroup. The author of the publication [Aliev, 2010], based on modern genogeography, localizes it in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. Taking into account the results of our dating, we specify this localization. The region of initial residence of the carriers of the haplogroup in question was the Byzantine and then the Ottoman empires. Now we have everything to perform population reconstruction. We will not consider the results of dating the common ancestor of the second cluster Group E1b1b1*-D - 57.7 generations or 1445 years ago, since an in-depth analysis (based on formal procedures for processing DNA data) of their reliability has not been performed. Such an analysis is necessary precisely because the date of the common ancestor of the cluster is fundamentally inconsistent with the other 11 dates.

Starting from the 14th century, from the territory of Byzantium and then Ottoman Turkey, there was a permanent resettlement of some social groups to European territory outside the Balkans. Among them were carriers of the E1b1b1*, E1b1b1a3*, E1b1b1c1* and E1b1b1c1a lines. They were the ancestors of humans, whose haplotypes formed dated clusters. But there is one fundamental point here. The geography of the lines of haplogroup E1b1b1 is such that the option of forming clusters from ancestors in Europe seems unlikely. The primary formation of clusters occurred in the “homeland” of haplogroup E1b1b1. Representatives of social groups moved to the territory of Europe, among which there were already carriers of isolated clusters of haplotypes. Those of them who fell into the region of formation of the Ashkenazi religious-ethnic community replenished their communities. This has led to the fact that the descendants of migrants, for the most part, are Jews today, and among the indigenous population of the region, there are relatively few of their descendants. Those migrants who found themselves outside the region of Ashkenazi formation were assimilated among the local population. Therefore, among the indigenous inhabitants of Europe outside the designated region, there are noticeably more carriers of the lineages in question than among those living in it. The carriers of the haplotypes of the united cluster of the E1b1b1c1a line have a special history. Either their ancestors were approximately equally involved in Jewish and non-Jewish social communities, or non-Jewish carriers of the E1b1b1c1a lineage are descendants of Jews. The second version is contradicted by the relatively small number of carriers of the other lineages under consideration among non-Jews in the territory of Ashkenazi residence.

Let us also express a second version of the interpretation of the results obtained. Most non-Jews of haplogroup E1b1b1 are descendants of Jews. In the Ashkenazi region, Jews were strictly separated from its other social communities territorially, culturally, and by the religion they professed. Therefore, here the processes of their assimilation did not have a significant scope. When Jews immigrated outside the Ashkenazi region, their descendants were assimilated among the indigenous population within the first generations. This is reflected by the geographic features of haplogroup E1b1b1

6. Problems of genochronological dating

The abnormal state of affairs in the field of estimates of mutation rates of Y-chromosome haplotype markers and their use in dating is, in our opinion, a consequence of the deliberate confusion of this issue [Tyurin, 2009, Mutation rates]. But another question is that the identification of clusters of haplotypes going back to one ancestor is not only confusing, but is in the “silence” zone. Its price is shown by the example of dating the Yakuts [Tyurin, 2010, Genochronology of the Yakuts]. Simply put, we claim that the authors of the publications [Adamov, 2008; Kharkov, 2008; Pakendorf 2006] performed incorrect genochronological dating of the common ancestor of the Yakuts of haplogroup N1c1. The Yakuts, carriers of this lineage, have not one modal haplotype, as the authors of the publications believe, but three. That is, the Yakuts, carriers of haplogroup N1c1, go back to three common ancestors. Their genochronological dating should be based on this.

The problem of assessing the correctness of identifying clusters of “short” (no more than 17-25 markers) haplotypes is solved extremely simply. It is necessary to create a simulation model on which it will be possible to calculate the direct tasks of genochronological dating. The model input should be supplied with only three parameters characterizing the dated cluster: the number of markers in the haplotypes, the accepted mutation rate and the dating result itself. The results of the modeling should be the relative distribution of the number of different haplotypes (modal and those differing from it by 1 or more steps), as well as the probable values ​​of identical haplotypes. There is only one problem in creating such a model. The calculations performed on it will “overturn” the results of genochronological dating of many authors. Note that the author of the publication [Adamov, 2008], when dating the Yakuts, performed a theoretical calculation of the distribution of the number of haplotypes. But he did not calculate the probable values ​​of identical haplotypes.

There is another problem in identifying haplotype clusters. In the haplotypes of the E1b1b1c1*-D1 group, we identified four clusters, each of which is associated with one of the modal haplotypes (Table 4). The sampling structure is simple and clear. On its basis, a specific hypothesis is put forward: each cluster is associated with one ancestor who had a specific 12-marker haplotype. This is the basis of genochronological dating. That is, the very assumption of the presence of a common ancestor (we are talking about the closest common ancestor, which is dated by the genochronological method) in people whose haplotypes are included in the cluster and have a certain length is a fiction. In fact, the number of markers in the Y chromosome, reflecting the relationship of people of the same line of the haplogroup, is orders of magnitude greater than, for example, the 12 markers that we limited ourselves to. This is easy to understand when considering the 67 marker haplotypes of the E1b1b1c1*-D1 group. Among them there is not a single haplotype that could be considered modal. At least we didn't find anything like that. The author of the publication [Aliev, 2010], as we understand, was able to date this group only on the basis of a surrogate modal haplotype. This is the haplotype of the fictitious ancestor. It seems to us that the use of a “fictitious ancestor” in genochronological dating is a completely correct operation. You just need to clearly understand that the common ancestor of a haplotype cluster is fictitious, regardless of the number of markers in the haplotypes of the cluster. It is possible to date a cluster using one marker. Can be dated by 6, 12, …. 67, ..... marker haplotypes. This is not important. The important thing is that the common ancestor is always fictitious, since it is not he who is dated, but the time of origin of a section of the Y chromosome of a certain length.

Now we can compare the dating results of the E1b1b1c1*-D1 group. The author of the publication [Aliev, 2010] took it for a single cluster. The date of the common ancestor was obtained - 40.0 generations or 1000 years ago. We identified 4 clusters in this group. The dates of their ancestors are 9.6, 11.3, 26.5, 13.9 generations ago. If we combine the second cluster with the third, and the first with the fourth, then the dates of the ancestors will be 25.2 and 15.7 generations ago. The results of the two datings differ significantly. We performed dating on 12 marker haplotypes, the author of the publication [Aliev, 2010] - on 67. But our dating was preceded by a detailed analysis of the structure of the sample, identifying clusters in it. What is the structure of 67 marker haplotypes of the E1b1b1c1*-D1 group?

When analyzing the structure of 67 marker haplotypes (34 in total) of the E1b1b1c1*-D1 group, we used two methods. The first of them is the identification of modes in the number of alleles of each haplotype marker, the second is the tracing of the modal haplotype. Haplotype markers that do not have mutations were excluded from the analysis. A total of 27 markers out of 67 remained. In 6 markers two modes were clearly identified, in the rest - one mode. The total number of mutations in markers with one mode is 41 in the direction of decreasing the number of alleles and 38 in the direction of increasing it. The good fit of these figures suggests that mutations in single-mode markers are a random process with a normal distribution of its outcomes. Two modes in the marker indicate that the sample included haplotypes going back to different common ancestors. Among the alleles of the DYS389-2 marker, two modes were clearly identified - 30 and 31. It is possible to arrange the corresponding haplotypes into two samples and again identify the modes in them. In the sample DYS389-2 = 31, 5 markers have two modes in the number of alleles, in the sample DYS389-2 = 31 – 1 marker. In a sample of 9 marker hapotypes of Yakuts (172 haplotypes), markers DYS392 and DYS389-2 have two allele number modes. That is, this sample cannot be attributed to one common ancestor, which we justified in the publication [Tyurin, 2010, Genochronology of the Yakuts].