Unemployment and its causes. Types of unemployment

Any market economy tends to fluctuate and become unstable. One of the key criteria influencing its development and functioning is the economically active population, which in turn is divided into:

• busy;
• unemployed.

The Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation” states: “Employed” means citizens engaged in labor activities under a contract that implies performing work for financial remuneration on the principles of full or part-time employment, as well as those who have any other work, including periodic work. character.

Unemployed citizens are recognized as a part of the economically active population that simultaneously meets the following factors:

• lack of permanent income in the form of wages (excluding unemployment benefits or social payments of the enterprise upon its liquidation);
• registration with the social fund as unemployed;
• constant search for a job;
• readiness to start work immediately.

The International Labor Organization (ILO) has a slightly different point of view and believes that the unemployed are the part of the population that does not have a job, is able to work in the current period of time, and is also looking for work in the period under study. In its calculations, the ILO uses data on the population aged 10 to 72 years; Rosstat, in its methodology, takes into account ages from 15 to 72.

In the concept of “unemployed population,” the ILO and Rosstat do not include full-time university students, people with disabilities, pensioners, and part-time workers.

To summarize, we can conclude that unemployment is a situation when the working-age population makes an effort to find income, but is unable to find a job or does not want to work, so to speak, they consider the working conditions offered by the job market to be inappropriate to their requirements.

Unemployment is not an abstract economic concept, but a problem that affects every citizen and the economy of the country as a whole. In most cases, the loss of a permanent position leads to emotional trauma, a deterioration in the person’s standard of living and stability. For the population, the opportunity to have a stable income is one of the main indicators of the success of the government’s economic activities. And during the election race, political parties use this problem to attract the attention of the electorate as the most pressing one.

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Unemployment Rate Indicators

The unemployment rate is the share of the unemployed population in the labor force.

Labor power is a citizen’s ability to work, a general indicator of the physiological and moral forces that he operates and uses in the process of creating material wealth.

Labor is a key factor of production in any modern society.

The unemployment rate is usually calculated using the formula:

Figure 0

Where: U’ is the unemployment rate;U is the number of unemployed;E – number of employees;U+E – quantity of labor force.

Each country calculates and publishes official data on the levels of unemployment that are acceptable for the level of its economic development, which are natural or maximum permissible. During the year, this coefficient may change under the influence of the cyclical nature of economic development and changes in the exchange rate of the national currency.

The natural or maximum permissible level is the level of unemployment at full employment of the population, as a result of which there is no excess demand and excess supply in the market. This state is described as equilibrium in the labor market. It forms a supply of labor capable of making economic and geographical movements in an extremely short time, depending on changes in demand and the resulting production needs. Such a supply of labor allows the economic system of the state to function stably.

The maximum permissible level in developed countries is the following dynamics: from 1.5-2% in Japan and Scandinavian countries to 6-8% in North America. Based on these statistics, economists have come to the conclusion that the maximum permissible unemployment rate varies between 4-6%.

According to data presented at the beginning of 2017 by Rosstat, the unemployment rate in Russia at the end of 2016 was 5.3%, which even exceeds the expectation of the Russian Government, which stated a level of within 6%.

Picture 1

But when considering Rosstat data, it is necessary to take into account that its methodology, unlike the ILO, takes into account only the population officially looking for work at the time of sampling. And it is based on a study of the analysis of certain categories of citizens of our country. Also, the statistical sample excludes data for the Republic of Crimea. Therefore, the true figure may differ significantly from the official version of Rosstat. All sample data can be found on the website www.gks.ru.

Forms, types of unemployment and their characteristics

For clarity, the forms, types of unemployment and their characteristics are shown in the table.

Figure 2

Types of unemployment

1. Frictional unemployment

A type of unemployment caused by natural migration, the main reason for which is the transition of a citizen from one job to another. As a result of such movement (during the period of selection or waiting for another job), these workers seem to drop out of the employed population.

The main causes of frictional unemployment are considered to be:

• geographical movement: a citizen changes his place of residence and may find himself without work for some time;
• change in life and professional interests: retraining, higher education, retraining;
• a new stage in my personal life: the birth of children.

Most economic experts believe that in a stable market situation the existence of a moderate level of frictional unemployment is, if not desirable, then at least a natural fact, since such a transition in most cases is caused by a person’s desire to get a higher-paying or interesting job. And this, in the long term, will lead to a better and economically sound placement of its human resources.

However, in practice, job seekers have their own requirements and inclinations, and existing vacancies require specific skills and professional knowledge. This leads to an imbalance between them. In addition, information about the availability of jobs does not always appear in a timely manner. And vacancies may end up in another region, requiring the allocation of labor. This leads to delays in employment and increased unemployment.

Frictional unemployment as a short-term phenomenon will be a useful element in a format of the labor market that assumes an exact match between a available employee and the offers of the vacancy market. In the real world, such an equilibrium is impossible, and temporarily unemployed citizens lead to an increase in unemployment.

2. Structural unemployment

This type occurs due to a mismatch between the qualifications or specialty of citizens seeking work with the proposed vacancies. That is, demand in the labor market is at odds with supply.

Structural unemployment often arises as a result of improvements in production or the transition from manual to automated labor. Also in case of transfer of production to another region. As a result of this optimization, released employees are forced to look for work in other sectors of the economy.

This type of unemployment is characterized by a long period of searching for work. A person is forced not only to look for a place, but also a new direction of activity.

3. Seasonal unemployment

Seasonal unemployment is predetermined by the fact that some sectors of the economy are in direct connection with natural conditions. The most striking example of such an industry is agriculture. In the construction and tourism sectors, seasonality also affects the number of employees. For example, cafe owners in resort areas hire only for the period May-October; keeping extra employees “out of season” is very costly for them.

The level of its load depends on how ready other sectors of the economy are to accept released citizens. And also on the desire and ability of the latter to undergo vocational training or move to another region.

However, this species has one important distinguishing feature - it can be predicted.

4. Cyclical unemployment.

Occurs during a depression, crisis or stagnation in the state's economy. The need for goods and services is reduced, subsequently reducing the overall volume of production. Enterprises are cutting costs by cutting the number of jobs. It is most noticeably manifested in a large number of job searches and a small supply in all structures and regions of the country. This is the most severe type of unemployment.

Its size is calculated as follows: the number of citizens employed in the economy for a given period of time minus the number of workers who could have jobs at a normal level of production, that is, under standard load conditions of all available production capacities.

5. Institutional unemployment.

This type of unemployment created by government agencies responsible for the labor market and factors affecting the distribution of labor.

These include:

• imperfections in the tax system (for example, a reduced tax rate on the income of unemployed individuals);
• social guarantees for the non-working population (for example, the government establishing a high level of unemployment benefits);
• insufficient awareness of employment centers about possible vacancies.

The culprit in this situation is the ineffective functioning of the labor market. The lack of up-to-date information about the availability of a vacancy does not allow an employee to quickly fill it. Or try to move to another region. In turn, firms do not see the resumes of candidates for the positions they offer.

High social benefits and allowances for unemployed citizens, which allow them to lead a completely normal lifestyle, lead the unconscious part of the working-age population to decide on parasitism. And a lower tax rate on social benefits may be more attractive than a fairly significant income tax on wages.

Forms of unemployment

1. Open unemployment.

There are two types:

• registered type (part of the population who has applied for support in finding work from social funds, that is, registered with the employment center and receives a monthly social benefit from it);
• unregistered type (part of the active population who prefers to work for themselves, that is, unofficially, hiding their income from the state, or the so-called parasites, people who do not like to work according to their life beliefs).

When compiling the sample, Rosstat takes into account only registered unemployed people, so its data may differ dramatically from the real ones. The ILO assessment technology involves taking into account all categories and is the most effective.

2. Hidden unemployment.

This is a difficult type to define, implying a situation where an employee is officially on the list of employees, but does not actually participate in production or participates in a greatly truncated form.

Hidden unemployment appears as a result of the following factors:

• Due to various factors, the enterprise maintains an excess number of employees receiving full wages. And as a result, the costs of their maintenance are included in the cost of manufactured products.
• The inability of the enterprise to provide employees with full-time work with an appropriate salary, but retain them as “part-time” employees. In this case, only employees who are willing but unable to work full-time are taken into account; employees who deliberately come for half a day are not taken into account.
• Registration of some employees on leave without pay.
• Regular downtime of enterprise equipment for a number of technical reasons.

The reasons for its occurrence:

• the enterprise administration is pursuing a policy of maintaining staff numbers with the expectation of a quick change in the economic situation, introducing half-day work;
• retaining employees allows management to count on receiving a number of benefits from the state;
• often, an enterprise does not have the financial ability to pay unemployment benefits to employees, so employees are forced to leave an employee, creating poor working conditions;
• the reluctance of workers from small settlements to leave work while maintaining partial earnings, due to the lack of other work;
• for employees of pre-retirement age, continuous length of service is important;
• a small but stable income in part-time work plays a more significant role for an employee than the possibility of increasing income when looking for a new job.

The development of economic relations and competition in the market for goods and services forces enterprises to optimize their numbers. This entails a reduction in the level of hidden unemployment. The main task at the moment is to ensure that in the process of developing a market economy, hidden unemployment does not turn into open unemployment.

3. Current unemployment.

This form is detected when workers in intellectual and physical labor who have key skills that meet all standards are released. This situation arises for various reasons, the main ones:

• disproportionate development of industrial sectors in the regions;
• periodically recurring recessions, depressions and stagnation in the economy;
• irregular demand for workers (insufficient during recession and depression, excessive during production downtime).

4. Stagnant unemployment.

Stagnant or long-term unemployment is a form of lack of employment of a citizen for a long period. It leads to dire consequences in terms of both material capabilities and the emotional state of the unemployed.

It has been statistically proven that the possibility of getting a job decreases if the period without a permanent job is prolonged. In part, this happens because after a sufficiently long unsuccessful search for work, the applicant prefers to remain on benefits as his usual security. Stagnant unemployment implies the need for assistance with retraining personnel or moving to another region where this area of ​​activity is more in demand.

5. Voluntary unemployment.

This form includes citizens who, due to various subjective factors, do not find it necessary to carry out any labor activity.

The reasons may be different:

• political and social views on work;
• religion and traditions (especially expressed in the republics of the Caucasus, where there is an opinion that it is impossible for a woman to realize herself in the profession);
• the desire of women to devote themselves to family and housekeeping;
• reluctance to work under the conditions offered by the labor market (amount of payment, length of working day);
• the loss of a citizen from society caused by his lifestyle, for example, homeless people, tramps, etc.

There are such people in any society. Even in the USA and Europe, scientists estimate their number at 14-16%. Attempts at influence, pressure, re-education or appeals to a sense of duty and responsibility did not bring any significant results. In Soviet times, there was an attempt to combat parasites, but it was not implemented quite successfully.

Economic and social consequences of unemployment

An increase in the share of physically healthy, but not engaged in any economic activity, part of society leads to negative results in various government spheres. Despite this, upon careful examination, this phenomenon can have its pros and cons.

Among the negative economic factors are:

• expenses incurred by state funds for social payments to registered unemployed;
• losses on lost wages for the unemployed;
• losses of tax authorities from shortfalls in tax collections to the budget on taxes levied on individuals;
• a decrease in the level of income of citizens leads to a reduction in the consumption of goods and their production;
• devaluation of acquired knowledge during training;
• general decline in the standard of living of the population.

Positive economic factors include:

• creating a reserve of working groups of various qualifications for large-scale changes in the structure of the economy;
• job cuts provoke an employee to more actively express himself as a specialist needed by the enterprise, pushing him to increase his level of knowledge and strive for professional growth;
• during the period of forced cessation of work, time is freed up for retraining, advanced training or obtaining education in a more in-demand profile;
• stimulating growth in labor efficiency and productivity.

Among the negative social factors it is worth noting:

• worsening crime climate in the region;
• increasing financial gaps and tensions between different social groups;
• an increase in physical and mental illness caused by stress from job loss;
• increased social apathy;
• decrease in the level of labor activity and desire for it due to a long search for a new job.

Positive social factors:

• changing attitudes in the employee’s mind about the social value of his workplace;
• increasing personal free time for communication with family and creative growth;
• freedom to choose a place of work, limited only by the required initial skills;
• changing society's attitude towards the social significance and value of work.

The main economic damage from unemployment is unproduced product. Which leads to a decrease in the total volume of material goods produced in the country and services provided. The growth of the unemployed population leads to a reduction in consumer demand. After all, wages are the only source of income for the majority of citizens. The elimination of this source forces the population to cut their expenses to the minimum necessary needs, such as utilities, food and medicine. All this prevents the growth of production of less necessary goods and a decrease in the production of essential goods. As a result, this leads to a general deterioration in the standard of living of the country's population as a whole.

The social component of unemployment is important for society, social funds and institutions, as well as individual citizens. A citizen loses not only his main source of income, but also, in the process of a long search for a new place, his qualifications. And with it confidence in further successful employment.

Social assistance from the state is not able to provide a satisfactory standard of living in the face of constantly increasing prices for goods. And the large number of people in need significantly depletes social funds.

Unemployment is a heavy and emotional burden for the citizen himself. He falls out of his usual environment, losing confidence in the need of his professional knowledge for others, his qualifications and the relevance of himself as a specialist in the future. There are frequent cases of deterioration in the physiological and moral state of the unemployed.

For the younger generation, who do not have sufficient work experience or the required level of professional skills, the lack of a labor market with vacancies without work experience can be a difficult ordeal. Such difficulties lead to the devaluation of education.

The long-term practice of countries with strong and competitive economies in the field of employment control has revealed that the labor market is not independent and does not provide solutions to employment issues without government intervention.

Measures taken by the Government of the Russian Federation to combat unemployment

State employment policy is a scientifically based process that includes measures implemented by government authorities in relation to the labor market.

Its parameters:

• improving labor reserves, increasing the speed of their allocation, protecting the interests of participants in the Russian labor market;
• protection and provision of equal opportunities for free labor to all categories of the working population without taking into account their political, social and religious views;
• providing conditions that provide an opportunity for a decent life and self-development for a citizen;
• comprehensive assistance to the population in the development of labor, production, creative and financial activities carried out in accordance with existing legislation;
• implementation by state funds of events aimed at helping citizens who have difficulty finding a job on their own;
• taking preventive measures to eliminate mass and reduce long-term unemployment;
• development of a system of benefits for enterprises that retain their existing staff and provide priority for newly created jobs to citizens who are in a long-term search for them;
• legislative coordination of all labor market participants to harmonize their actions;
• ensuring the relationship between state authorities, trade unions of enterprises, and any other associations representing the interests of employees and administration of enterprises in the development and implementation of acts to improve the employment situation;
• interstate interaction in resolving issues about the labor activities of Russian citizens outside its territory and citizens of third-party states on our territory, to perform the function of monitoring the implementation of international labor rules.

This refers to the size of the adult (over 16 years old) working-age population who has a job. But not all of the working-age population has a job; there are also unemployed. Unemployment is characterized as the number of adult working-age population who do not have a job and are actively looking for one. The total number of employed and unemployed people constitutes the labor force.

To calculate unemployment, various indicators are used, but the generally accepted one, including in the International Labor Organization, is. It is defined as the ratio of the total number of unemployed to the labor force, expressed as a percentage.

Unemployment- a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the labor force is not employed in the production of goods and services.

However, even in such a situation, there is some unemployment, called frictional.

Causes of frictional unemployment

Frictional unemployment occurs due to the dynamism of the labor market.

Some workers voluntarily decided to change jobs, finding, for example, a more interesting or better-paid job. Others are trying to find a job because they were fired from their previous job. Still others are entering the labor market for the first time or re-entering it, moving from the category of the economically inactive population to the opposite category.

Structural unemployment

Structural unemployment - associated with technological changes in production that change the structure of demand for labor (occurs if a worker fired from one industry cannot find a job in another).

This type of unemployment occurs if the sectoral or territorial structure of labor demand changes. Over time, important changes occur in the structure of consumer demand and in production technology, which, in turn, change the structure of overall labor demand. If the demand for workers in a given profession or in a given region falls, then unemployment appears. Released workers cannot quickly change their profession and qualifications or change their place of residence and remain unemployed for some time.

In the figure, the decreased demand is represented by the line. In this case, assuming that wages do not change immediately, the intercept represents the value of structural unemployment: at the wage rate, there are people who are willing but unable to work. Over time, the equilibrium wage will fall to a level at which only frictional unemployment will again exist.

Many economists do not make a clear distinction between frictional and structural unemployment, since in the case of structural unemployment, laid-off workers begin to look for a new job.

It is important that both types of unemployment constantly exist in the economy. It is impossible to completely destroy them or reduce them to zero. People will look for other jobs, seeking to improve their well-being, and firms will seek more qualified workers, seeking to maximize profits. That is, in a market economy there are constant fluctuations in supply and demand in the labor market.

Since the existence of frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable, economists call their sum natural unemployment.

Natural rate of unemployment- this is its level that corresponds to full employment (includes frictional and structural forms of unemployment), is due to natural reasons (personnel turnover, migration, demographic reasons), and is not associated with the dynamics of economic growth.

It occurs in cases where a fall in aggregate demand for manufactured goods causes a fall in aggregate demand for labor in conditions of downward inflexibility of real wages.

The figure shows the situation of wage rigidity. The sentence is represented by a vertical line for ease of presentation.

If real wages are above the level corresponding to the equilibrium point, the supply of labor on the market exceeds the demand for it. Firms need fewer workers than the number of people willing to work at a given wage level. On the other hand, firms cannot or do not want to reduce wages for a number of reasons.

Minimum wage law

According to this law, wages cannot be set below a certain threshold. For the majority of employees, this minimum has no practical significance, however, there are some groups of workers (unskilled and inexperienced workers, teenagers) for whom the established minimum raises earnings above the equilibrium point, which reduces the demand of firms for such labor and increases unemployment.

Although only a fraction of the country's workforce is unionized, they prefer laying off workers rather than cutting wages. The reason is this. Temporary wage cuts reduce the earnings of all workers, while layoffs in most cases affect only the most recently hired workers, who make up only a small portion of union members. Thus, trade unions achieve high wages, sacrificing the employment of a small number of workers - union members. A collective agreement concluded between a company and a trade union can also cause unemployment. As a rule, it is concluded for a long period, and if the agreed wage level exceeds the equilibrium level, then the firm will prefer to hire fewer workers at a high price.

Effective salary

Efficiency wage theories assume that high wages increase worker productivity and reduce turnover in a firm. This policy allows us to attract and retain highly qualified specialists, improve the quality of work and the interest of employees. A reduction in wages reduces motivation to work and encourages the most capable workers to look for another job.

Psychological aspect

Obviously, there is no single wage rate for all firms in the market. In large firms, wages are usually higher. However, workers at large firms sometimes prefer to remain unemployed rather than take a low-paying job. According to some economists, this behavior is caused by workers’ self-esteem and their desire for a certain position in society.

Institutional unemployment

Institutional unemployment - arises due to the limited availability of labor force and employers in up-to-date information about vacancies and the desire of workers.

The level of unemployment benefits also affects the labor market, creating a situation where an individual who has the opportunity to get a low-paid job prefers to remain on unemployment benefits.

This type of unemployment occurs if the labor market does not function efficiently enough.

As in other markets, there is limited information. People may simply not be aware of existing vacancies, or firms may not be aware of the employee's desire to take the proposed position. Another institutional factor is unemployment benefit level. If the benefit level is high enough, a situation called an unemployment trap occurs. Its essence lies in the fact that an individual who has the opportunity to get a low-paid job will prefer to receive benefits and not work at all. As a result, unemployment increases, and society suffers losses not only due to production being below potential, but also due to the need to pay inflated unemployment benefits.

Unemployment figures

Unemployment indicators also include its duration.

Defined as the number of months a person spent without a job.

As a rule, most people quickly find work, and unemployment seems to be a short-term phenomenon for them. In this case, we can assume that this is frictional unemployment, and it is inevitable.

On the other hand, there are people who cannot find a job for months. They are called the long-term unemployed. Such people most acutely feel the burden of unemployment and often, despairing of finding work, leave the group

Natural unemployment.

When analyzing the labor factor, as well as other factors of production, in order to identify the conditions for the successful development of the national economy, the problem of the labor force reserve arises. Just as reserves of production capacity are required as a condition for expanding production volumes, in a market economy, free, unused labor resources are needed on a certain scale, capable of being included in the production process when demand increases in certain markets for goods and services. Therefore, this objectively determined labor reserve corresponds to the real, natural conditions of the labor market. Natural rate of unemployment- this is its norm for a given structure of supply and demand in the economy, which keeps real wages constant and, subject to zero growth in labor productivity, maintains the price level unchanged.

Natural unemployment finds its manifestation in several forms of its existence: frictional, voluntary and institutional.

Frictional unemployment. It characterizes the process of migration of labor from one enterprise to another in search of a better, more profitable application of their abilities and efforts. This form of unemployment is a natural process of redistribution of labor resources in accordance with the existing structure of jobs. Frictional unemployment is transient. A high level of frictional unemployment due to high staff turnover can cause great losses to society in the form of huge losses of working time.

Frictional unemployed people include:

• - dismissed from work by order of the administration;
• - those who resigned of their own free will;
• - awaiting reinstatement to their previous job;
• - those who have found a job, but have not yet started it;
• - seasonal workers (out of season);
• - those who have appeared on the labor market for the first time or again with the level of professional training and qualifications required in the economy.

Frictional unemployment is not only an inevitable phenomenon, since it is associated with natural trends in the movement of the labor force (people will always change jobs, trying to find a job that best suits their preferences and qualifications), but also desirable, since it contributes to a more rational placement labor force and higher productivity (favorite work is always more productive and creative than the one that a person forces himself to do).

Voluntary unemployment includes a contingent of unemployed able-bodied people who have voluntarily withdrawn from work, i.e. he just doesn't want to work.

Institutional unemployment caused by the functioning of the labor market infrastructure, as well as factors that distort supply and demand in this market. Relatively large unemployment benefits may lead to longer job search periods, which has a significant impact on labor supply. This can then manifest itself in the adaptive effect of unemployment, when people who have once experienced the idleness accompanied by receiving unemployment benefits often resort to using this form of income from time to time in the future.

The system of ensuring a guaranteed minimum wage, which has a negative impact on the flexibility of the labor market, also has a certain impact on unemployment. On the one hand, a guaranteed minimum wage will exclude the possibility of employment at a lower rate, which causes an increase in unemployment. On the other hand, such a minimum has a positive effect on limiting inefficiently operating enterprises, since by setting the minimum acceptable price of labor, the state thereby indirectly sets a lower limit for the profitability of enterprises that should not make a profit by understating the cost of one of the factors of production - labor.

In the direction of reducing the supply of labor, high income tax rates also apply, significantly reducing the amount of income remaining at the disposal of the employee. This reduces the interest of wage earners in supplying their labor force.

Institutional unemployment should also include the unemployment of the labor force, associated with the imperfection of information systems that track the volume and structure of both available jobs and free labor.

Involuntary unemployment.

Another type of unemployment is the so-called involuntary unemployment, which is imposed or dictated by ongoing changes in economic activity associated with technological revolutions, shifts in the sectoral structure of social production, and changes in the territorial distribution of productive forces. In accordance with these processes, three forms of forced unemployment are distinguished: technological, structural and regional.

Technological unemployment is associated with successive technological principles of production functioning, the main of which are instrumentalization, mechanization and automation. This very simplified model clearly shows the replacement of manual labor with mechanized labor, which is being replaced by automation.

In the first case, high labor intensity is obvious, so mechanization of labor operations becomes beneficial due to the release of labor. Workers are being displaced by machines from the production process.

In the second case, the replacement of workers employed in instrumental or mechanized areas of labor with automated complexes or automatic control systems is usually caused by the high level of income of employees. Automation of production processes, as in the case of mechanization, can significantly reduce wage costs, i.e., labor costs of production and increase its efficiency.

At the same time, despite the fact that technological unemployment concerns certain industries (and in principle, all production and industries go through this), nevertheless, it causes not only an increase in the level of qualifications of the workforce and the intellectualization of labor, but also shifts in the structure of the employed. In particular, robotization of production processes causes a sharp demand for operators, adjusters and repair workers. However, we must remember that these are, to a certain extent, qualitatively different adjusters and repairmen compared to previously employed workers.

At the same time, sometimes the very idea of ​​the workplace changes radically. Thus, the use of personal computers included in integrated communication systems leads to an increase in home employment. This indicates a significant reduction in the cost of fixed capital required to create jobs in the traditional sense (buildings, offices, bureaus). At the same time, information technologies make it possible to modernize the employment service and qualitatively improve the system of information about the state of affairs in the labor market.

Structural unemployment caused by the release of labor as a result of ongoing changes in the structure of the national economy. In the context of accelerated scientific and technological progress, large-scale structural changes are taking place in social production, which entail significant changes in the structure of labor force employment. The structural restructuring of the national economy is accompanied by a curtailment of investment, production and employment in some sectors and their expansion in others. It should be noted that the greatest social tension in society is generated precisely by this unemployment (if we do not take into account unemployment caused by recurring cyclical downturns or crises).

Despite all the objectivity and predetermination of the ongoing structural changes in the national economy, opposition to the curtailment of certain types of labor activity is associated with economic, social, psychological and other factors. In this regard, the problem of structural unemployment should constantly be the focus of the state’s socio-economic policy, and, above all, those institutions that are directly involved in the labor market and are directly related to the ongoing structural changes.

The reason for the existence of structural unemployment is the discrepancy between the structure of the labor force and the structure of jobs. Structural unemployment is longer lasting and more costly than frictional unemployment. On the one hand, an increase in demand for the products of industries where it is still low may occur after an indefinitely long period of time or even not occur at all, and on the other hand, finding work in new industries generated by scientific and technological progress, without special retraining and requalification almost impossible.

Like frictional unemployment, structural unemployment is an inevitable and natural phenomenon even in highly developed economies, as it is associated with natural processes in the development and movement of labor. The structure of demand for products from different industries is constantly changing and the sectoral structure of the economy is also constantly changing in connection with scientific and technological progress, and therefore structural changes are constantly occurring and will continue to occur in the economy, provoking structural unemployment.

Regional unemployment is associated with a whole complex of factors of a historical, demographic, cultural-national, socio-psychological nature. Therefore, when solving this problem, there should be close interaction between local administrative-national-territorial authorities and the central, federal authorities, not excluding interaction with the governments of neighboring states.

A special place in the structure of involuntary unemployment is occupied by hidden unemployment, characterized by part-time employment during the working day, working week, month, year. It also includes that part of the employed workforce that performs a noticeably incomplete amount of work. Hidden unemployment in Russia reached colossal proportions in 1992-1998, which was primarily the result of erroneous policies during the transition to a market economy, which led not to a structural restructuring of the national economy, but to a socio-economic crisis of unprecedented depth in peacetime.

Long-term unemployment covers that part of the working population who have lost their jobs, lost the right to receive unemployment benefits, despaired of finding jobs, have already adapted to living on social handouts from society and have lost all interest in active work. It can also be characterized by the lack of opportunity to find work in regions affected by economic recession, when even the total number of available jobs is less than the number of unemployed.

Has independent significance cyclical unemployment, which is predetermined by the cyclical nature of social reproduction and occurs at the stage of decline in production or in the phase of economic crisis. Fluctuations in the level of employment depend on the stage that the economy is going through: at the stage of recovery, employment grows, at the stage of recession - it sharply decreases, at the stage of depression - it is kept at a low level, and at the stage of recovery, it intensively “resolves”.

Based on the above, we can summarize. Unemployment is understood as a socio-economic phenomenon indicating that a certain part of the working-age population does not find use for their mental and physical abilities due to reasons beyond their control. The labor market is characterized not only by employment, but also by unemployment, which, on the one hand, can negatively evaluate the “inactivity” of a resource, on the other hand, as a benefit, because it indicates the presence of free labor, which, if necessary, can immediately enter the production process and ensure its expanded scale. In the modern world, there are four causes of unemployment - the minimum wage law, the activities of trade unions, the theory of wage efficiency and job search. By its nature, unemployment is divided into natural and forced. Natural unemployment is assessed as the objective inevitability of the existence of such forms as frictional (current), voluntary and institutional. Involuntary unemployment manifests itself in the following forms: technological, structural and cyclical.

unemployment employment consequence

One of the most complex phenomena in the social and labor sphere, organically connected with the labor market and employment of the population, is unemployment. As a result of the functioning of the labor market, unemployment has a huge impact on all aspects of the country's life. The nature, causes and consequences of unemployment are still being studied by scientists of different directions: economists, sociologists, psychologists, etc. In the practice of public administration, regulation of the labor market in order to reduce unemployment is always given one of the main places.

Unemployment concept

- a socio-economic phenomenon that acts as a lack of employment for a certain, larger or smaller part of the economically active population, capable and willing to work.

According to the ILO methodology, unemployed persons are considered to be persons of working age and older who do not have a job (gainful occupation), are looking for work and are ready to start work. From their total number, the unemployed are distinguished, officially registered with the state employment service and received this status in accordance with employment legislation.

In Russia, the status of the unemployed is defined more strictly: according to the Law “On Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation,” able-bodied citizens who have no work and no income, are registered with the employment service in order to find a suitable job, are looking for work and are ready to start work are recognized as unemployed; In addition, the law stipulates that citizens under 16 years of age and old-age pensioners cannot be recognized as unemployed.

In modern economics, unemployment is seen as a natural and integral part of a market economy. It promotes:

• improving the quality structure of the workforce, its competitiveness as a commodity;
• the formation of a new motivational mechanism and an appropriate attitude towards work;
• increasing the self-worth of the workplace and strengthening the connection between a person and work;
• availability of a labor reserve in case of need for rapid deployment of new production.

In this regard, the classification of forms of unemployment according to various criteria is of great interest (Table 2.5).

Frictional, voluntary and seasonal unemployment are classified as natural unemployment, which is necessary for the formation of a labor reserve, which constitutes the potential labor resources of social production.

Institutional unemployment is a consequence of the imperfection of the labor market regulation mechanism. Thus, the lack of wide access to information about the state of the market, the relationship between labor supply and demand creates obstacles to the employment of citizens looking for work.

Simplification at the legislative level of the procedure for providing and increasing the amount of unemployment benefits can reduce the interest of part of the unemployed population in finding a job or gainful occupation, thereby giving rise to dependent sentiments. At the same time, as practice showed in the mid-1990s, the complication of the procedure for obtaining unemployed status affected the level of activity of citizens looking for work, which resulted, for example, in the rapid growth of individual entrepreneurship.

Structural and technological unemployment, in fact, can be attributed to the same type, since the reasons for both are the decrease in demand for specific labor caused by the development of organizational, technical and technological tools and methods of production management.

Cyclical unemployment is a consequence of an economic crisis generated by a complex set of macroeconomic factors and blocking not only the formation of demand and supply of labor, but also the functioning of the market as such.

The term “regional unemployment” is used to characterize the state of the labor market of a specific territorial entity (region, city, district). Analysis of regional unemployment allows us to identify specific features characteristic of the local labor market, which is necessary for developing adequate measures to regulate employment and unemployment.

Economic unemployment is one of the results of competition in product markets. The emergence of strong competitors always leads to ruin, in particular, of small producers who, in turn, are forced to refuse the services of hired workers.

The reasons for marginal unemployment are the low competitiveness in the labor market of certain categories of the population: young people entering the labor market for the first time, women, people with limited ability to work, older citizens. An analysis of unemployment in these population groups is necessary to develop measures that realize their rights to employment.

Forms of unemployment and their characteristics

A logical continuation of the proposed classification of forms of unemployment is its structuring according to the following gender, age, professional qualification and socio-demographic characteristics:

• gender (with highlighting the least socially protected unemployed - women);
• age (with a focus on youth unemployment and unemployment among people of pre-retirement age);
• occupation (workers, managers, specialists, unskilled workers and others);
• the level of education;
• level of income and wealth;
• reasons for dismissal;
• mental groups.

Main indicators characterizing unemployment

A complete picture of unemployment can be reflected by a combination of indicators, the most important of which are the unemployment rate and the duration of unemployment.

Unemployment rate (UB) - the share of the number of unemployed (B) in the number of economically active population (EAP), expressed as a percentage:

UB = (B / EAN)*100%.

The unemployment rate can be calculated both according to the methodology of the Ministry of Education and Science, and in accordance with special legislative norms of the state. In the first case, this is a periodic sample survey, a survey of the population by any government agency, excluding employment services. In our country, this work is carried out by the Federal State Statistics Service. A population survey on employment problems in the Russian Federation is carried out in all regions with quarterly frequency based on a sample observation method with the subsequent distribution of the results to the entire population aged 15 to 72 years. This methodology has been tested in many countries of the world and allows us to obtain, with a high degree of reliability, data on the real state of the labor market, the subjects of which are also citizens who are not registered with the state employment service, who are looking for work on their own or resort to the services of commercial organizations.

The Federal Service for Labor and Employment of the Russian Federation determines the unemployment rate based on the number of officially unemployed registered with its bodies in the prescribed manner. This information is necessary to assess the state of the official labor market, determine the dynamics of citizens' requests to employment services and plan budget items allocated for the payment of benefits, training for the unemployed and other programs to stimulate employment.

Duration of unemployment- a value characterizing the average duration of job search by persons who had the status of unemployed at the end of the period under review, as well as by those unemployed who were employed during this period. For Russia, as for many developed countries of the world, the problem of long-term and stagnant unemployment is extremely relevant.

When solving unemployment problems, it is considered appropriate to achieve natural rate (natural level) of unemployment - an optimal labor reserve for the economy, capable of quickly making intersectoral and interregional movements, depending on fluctuations in demand and the resulting production needs.

Absolute absence of unemployment is considered impossible in a market economy. Frictional and structural unemployment are essentially inevitable. They form the natural level of unemployment, which in economically developed countries has increased since the 1980s. estimated at 7%.

Types of behavior of the unemployed in the labor market

Based on the type of behavior in the labor market, four groups of unemployed can be distinguished.

Professional type. For unemployed people of this type, in the process of searching for a job, the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities, business qualities, improve their qualifications, as well as the work itself, which involves variety, content, and the possibility of creativity, is essential. Being carriers of a professional type of economic behavior in the labor market, they regard the loss of a job as a nuisance, without experiencing any particular distress. They rate their competitiveness quite highly, believe in themselves and their strengths, and therefore independently and actively look for work, including those requiring higher qualifications. Ready to start working as soon as something suitable appears and even after moving to another city; preference is given to working in financial and management structures, as well as in the fields of science, education and leisure activities.

Instrumental type. These are unemployed people who are indifferent to the form of employment as long as it provides an acceptable financial status. Research has shown that unemployed people of this type are focused primarily on high wages, monetary compensation, bonuses, order and good organization of work, convenient work schedules, and proximity of work to their place of residence. If the job offered does not meet their expectations, they refuse it. If the condition for employment is a change of place of residence, or a change in activity profile and retraining for another profession, unemployed people of this type, as a rule, refuse work, since they hope to still find employment in their specialty. Most of them do not agree to start their own business.

Economic type - a carrier of an active market type of economic behavior. Basically, on the one hand, these are managers of all ranks of all types of enterprises and organizations (with some experience in organizational and managerial activities), on the other, salespeople, cashiers, and bartenders. They are united by common work values ​​- these are people who strive to “be the master of their workplace”, to work independently with a focus on expanding connections and acquaintances. More often than others, they strive to organize their own business and independently seek opportunities for acquiring a new profession and retraining. For better employment, we are ready to move to another region and even outside Russia. If the search for work is delayed, they can take up gardening, gardening, and will earn extra money wherever necessary. When choosing types of activities, preference is given to the service sector, recreation, leisure and catering.

Type of social dependent. Unemployed people of this type are not capable of independently solving employment problems; their main hopes for employment are connected with the state. They are characterized by the attitude of “live on state benefits”, “retire”. They hope for government support, and in case of unemployment, most of them will turn to the employment service. When looking for work, they are attracted by the opportunity to have a guaranteed job and stability, even if the salary is not so high, thereby demonstrating an opportunistic, consumerist, dependent type of economic behavior. Such unemployed people have a relatively low level of professional education and low qualifications. The main life value for them is stability of situation and confidence in the future; they believe that there should be no unemployment, they agree to any job, even lower in terms of qualifications and pay. To a greater extent than other types, they believe that their situation has changed significantly for the worse; they feel less confident and more anxious in the labor market. If they lose their jobs, a significant part of them will sit at home, raise their children, and also wait for the employment service to find them a job; Some of them agree to change the profile of their activities, but they themselves are not going to do anything for this.