Seas that belong to the Atlantic Ocean. largest seas

The southern seas of the Russian Federation include the Caspian, Azov and. These seas are combined into one group, since they have a close geographical position, and they are located relatively close to each other. These seas are of tectonic origin and are the "descendants" of the Tethys Ocean, which currently no longer exists.

The South Seas were formed by periodic uplift and subsidence. Similar movements were observed in all southern territories. The formation of these seas also contributed to the periodic increase in either salty waters of the ocean or fresh river waters. A similar formation of the southern seas led to their separation from the oceans. completely isolated, and Black and partially isolated from .

The waters of the southern seas have a peculiar chemical composition. Their waters contain a large amount of chlorides, but they are less than in ocean water. But the content of carbonates exceeds oceanic indicators. Another characteristic feature of the waters of the southern seas is low. In these seas, most of the water balance consists of river waters. The content of fresh water in is one eighth of the total. The share of river waters is large (although much less than that of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov) near the Black and.

The southern seas are characterized by continental features. But each sea has its own specific climatic features. Features of the continental climate are most clearly seen in the northern part of the Caspian Sea. In the Sea of Azov and the northwestern zone of the Black Sea, continentality is not so clearly seen.

Caspian Sea

In the southern seas, they are almost not observed. Only in the Black Sea does the water level fluctuate due to the tidal nature. Changes in the water level are 7 - 8 cm. All the southern seas are characterized by surge processes, which reach their greatest strength in the northern regions of the Caspian and Azov Seas and near the Black Sea. The significance of surge and surge is especially great for the vertical exchange of waters in the Black Sea.

In the southern seas, seiches are clearly manifested, which occur as a result of a rapid change over the body of water. Due to the fact that the Caspian Sea does not have access to the waters of the World Ocean, long-term changes in the water level are observed in this sea. In different historical periods, the degree of filling of the basin of the Caspian Sea was different. Currently, there is a decrease in the amount of continental waters as a result of human activity and change.

In the southern seas, scientists distinguish between two regional types: estuary-shelf and oceanic. The Sea of Azov, the northern part of the Caspian Sea and the northwestern Black Sea belong to the estuary-shelf type. They are characterized by: a small depth of water, a high content of fresh water, a strong influence of processes. In connection with these features, these seas react very quickly to natural and anthropogenic changes, which in turn affects the chemical composition of the waters and their biological conditions. In sea waters of this type, an ice cover forms every year, but during the winter its presence is irregular.

The deep-water parts of the Caspian and belong to the oceanic type. Due to the fact that these areas of the seas are characterized by a huge amount, there are minor changes caused by external factors. The features of these basins are determined, first of all, by the processes that occur during the internal exchange of water. In these areas of the seas, a constant chemical composition of water masses is observed.

As a result of human activity in the southern seas, there is a deterioration in the ecological state. The following factors contribute to water pollution: the widespread development of shipping and an increase in the number of seaports, the operation of industrial enterprises, soil dumping, runoff of urban polluted waters, etc.

Black Sea, breakwater (photo by Anastasia Chernikova)

A large amount of pollutants enter the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov along with the waters of the rivers Kuban, Mius and other small ones. In the waters of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, which belong to the territory of Russia, at the end of the 90s of the last century, there was a decrease in pollution.

The waters of the Black Sea, which belong to the Russian Federation, are classified as "Moderately polluted". There is a low oxygen content here, which negatively affects the flora and fauna of the sea. Periodically, oil products also enter the waters of the Black Sea, due to accidents on ships and together with industrial effluents. The ecological state of the resort areas is constantly deteriorating, as a result of the strong impact of human activities. It is necessary to build a large number of water protection facilities.

The most polluted areas of the Black Sea are located near the cities of Sochi, Novorossiysk, Primorsko-Akhtarsk. It is possible to improve water quality by applying a number of measures: the active introduction of treatment facilities, the timely renewal of sewerage networks, and strict control over the treatment of storm water. The increase in the number of ships that serve the port, the activities of the ships of the military fleet, which is based in the port of Novorossiysk, negatively affects the ecological state of the Black Sea waters.

The greatest environmental damage to the waters of the Caspian Sea is caused by the river runoff of polluted waters, wastewater that enters the sea from enterprises. periodically produce emissions of toxic substances. The waters of the Caspian Sea are polluted with oil products, phosphorus, and an increase in the content of phenols is observed here. At the end of the 90s of the last century, the highest levels of nitrogen content were noted. Among the districts of Dagestan, the following are “contaminated”: Lopatin, Makhachkala, Kaspiysk, Izberbash and Derbent, as well as the mouths of the Sulak and Samur rivers. The waters of the Terek River (in the coastal area) are classified as "dirty".

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest in its size. It has more than 100 bays and seas. Its northern waters are bordered by Iceland and Greenland, to the south by Antarctica, to the west by Eurasia and Africa, and to the east by the continents of the New World. The total coastal length of the ocean is 111,966 km.

currents

The Labrador, East Greenland and Norwegian currents flow in the upper ocean basin. The circular warm North Equatorial and South Equatorial currents are located on the upper and lower zones from the equator, respectively.

The seas, currents and bays of the Atlantic Ocean will be discussed below.

The North Equatorial Current is divided into the northern branch and the Florida Current, from which the Gulf Stream is formed, and later the North Atlantic Current.

The South Tradewind Current forms the Guiana Current in the north, and the Brazilian Current in the south, which passes into the Benguela Current.

Pool

The seas and bays of the Atlantic Ocean with a volume of 330.1 million square meters. km cover a quarter of the world's oceans. 14.90 sq. km of its territory, is included in

Southern Ocean, and the remaining 76.76 million square meters. km fall on the basin itself, 1/8 of which is occupied by seas, bays and straits.

The average value of its depth is 3736 m, and the greatest depth of 8742 m is observed on the border of the Caribbean Sea - in the Puerto Rico trench.

Salinity

The salinity of the ocean at the equator is 35‰, in the tropics and subtropics - 37.25‰, near Antarctica up to 33.6‰-33.8‰, off the coast of Canada and Greenland - 32‰, in the northeast - 35.5‰. The Atlantic Ocean is considered the most saline ocean in the world - its average value is 35.3‰.

Temperature

At the equator there is a large part of the ocean, where the temperature exceeds 20°C. In the subequatorial zone, the temperature is +10°C and +20°C in winter and summer, respectively.
In temperate latitudes, the temperature in winter drops to -10°C, and in summer it is 10-15°C. In winter, in temperate latitudes, uniform precipitation is observed, and in the tropics and subtropics - heavy rains and tropical cyclones.

Major seas of the Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean basin includes 30 seas, which can be divided into several types. Among them, there are several main seas that have an important transport, recreational and industrial role.

Sea type
Mediterranean inland seas	Adriatic, Ionic, Marble, Aegean, Cretan, Alboran, Balearic, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Icarian, Levantine, Cypriot, Sardinian, Libyan, Myrtoic, Thracian Cilician.
inland	Mediterranean, Black, Azov, Baltic, Irish, Northern, Caribbean, Watt.
Seas of the Southern Ocean	Scotia, Wedell, Lazarev, Riiser-Larsen.
marginal seas	Sargasso, Caribbean, Labrador, Iroise, Irminger, Celtic.

Baltic

It washes the Scandinavian Peninsula, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, as well as Germany and Denmark. The volume of the sea is 21.5 thousand cubic meters. km, and the area - 419 thousand square meters. km, of which 4 thousand square meters. km are islands. The deepest part of the sea is observed in the Landsort depression - 470 m. The depth is 51 m.

It is rich in ferromanganese minerals, deposits of oil and amber. It is of great transport importance. The water temperature in the center of the sea ranges from 14°C to 17°C in summer and from 0.4°C to 5.8°C in winter. The salinity of the sea decreases with moving inland - on the border with the North Sea, it is 20%.

The sea is inhabited by shrimps, barnacles, mussels, porpoise, varieties of seals, perch, eel, salmon, bondage, cod, pike perch, burbot, pike. Fucus, kelp, polysiphonia, rhodomela grow on the territory of the pool.

caribbean

Washes South and Central America in the south and west, respectively. The northeastern part is separated by the Antilles. Its area is 2.574 million square meters. km, and the volume is 6860 thousand cubic meters. km. The greatest depth is in the Cayman Basin - 7686 m, and the average - 2491 m. It has more than 700 islands, caves and reefs.

Sea turtles, species of sharks and whales, flying fish, seals, dolphins, parrot fish and sperm whales live in the sea. The oil reserves of the Caribbean Sea exceed 13 billion tons, and gas - 8.5 trillion. cube m.

The sea temperature in summer is stable around 28°C. And in winter it is 23°C in the north and 27°C in the south. The salinity of the water does not exceed 36 ‰. From June to November, up to a dozen tropical hurricanes are observed in the north of the sea.

Labrador

The sea is named after the nearby Labrador Peninsula. It is located in the temperate zone and borders Canada and Greenland. The area is 840 thousand square meters. km, and the volume is 1.596 million km³. The average depth is 1898 m, and the maximum depth is 4316 m.

Temperatures in the northeast range from -4°C to -6°C and in the northwest from -16°C to -18°C. In the south, the air temperature varies from -2°C to -10°C, and in the central part - from -8°C to -10°C. It often storms in autumn and winter, and 2/3 of its area is occupied by ice.

The lowest salinity of the waters is observed on the northern shores of Greenland and Labrador - from 30‰ to 32‰, and the highest reaches 36‰, on the border with the ocean and the Sargasso Sea. The fauna of the basin is rich in squid, shrimps, dolphins, whales, flounder and even sharks.

Lazareva

The sea is located near Antarctica and washes Queen Maud Land. The basin does not have clear boundaries, but occupies an approximate area of 929 thousand square meters. km. The average depth of the sea is 3000 m, and the maximum depth is 4500 m. Seals, killer whales, white-blooded fish, penguins and sea leopards live on its territory.

The sea is covered with ice all year round, which gradually breaks off in summer, forming icebergs. In February, the temperature drops to -10°C, and in August it fluctuates from -10°C to -26°C. With strong winds, the temperature drops to -50°C. The salinity of the water varies slightly relative to the seasons - in summer 34 ° C, and in winter 33.5 ° C.

Sargasso

The seas and bays of the Atlantic Ocean include a basin covered with algae - the Sargasso Sea. It is devoid of shores and is located in the east of the Florida peninsula. In the south, it borders on the North Trade Wind, in the north on the North Atlantic, and in the west - the Canary Currents. Its area is about 6-7 million square meters. km, the average depth is 5000 m, and the maximum depth is 6905 m.

The area between the Florida peninsula, Bermuda and Puerto Rico is referred to as the Bermuda Triangle. Its territory is conditioned by magnetic storms and gravitational anomalies. The temperature in winter ranges from 24°C to 18°C, and in winter it reaches 26°C. Its central part has a salinity of 37‰, and the outskirts - 36‰.

The sea was named after the algae - sargasso, which cover its surface. Their total mass is more than 10 million tons. The sea is home to anchovies, tuna, tiny crabs, small fish and sharks. The sea is visited by European and American eels for spawning. The meager world of fauna owes a small amount of plankton.

Northern

The sea washes Western Europe, Central Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula. Its area is 565 thousand square meters. km, and the depth varies from 40 m to 725 m. More than half of the sea is no deeper than 100 m, and its average depth does not exceed 95 m.

Winds constantly blow over its basin, which is why fog and rain are often observed. In summer, the surface temperature reaches from 12°C to 18°C, and in winter it does not fall below 2°C. The average salinity of the water is 35‰, but on the border with the Baltic Sea it falls relatively.

More than a fifth of the total world maritime cargo traffic is transported through the sea. Rich in shrimps, halibut, cod, horse mackerel, Antantic herring, anchovies. The shelf zone is rich in oil and gas, the deposits of which provide the UK, Germany, France, Norway and Belgium with fuel. Oil reserves are 3 billion tons.

skosha

It is located on the coast of Antarctica, between the South George, Orkney and Sandwich Islands. Its area is 1.247 million square meters. km, the average depth reaches 5100 m, which makes it the deepest sea in the world. Its bottom reaches 6022 m.

The air above the sea is dry and cold. Storms and storms are often observed. The surface of the sea is often covered with icebergs. Salinity is relatively the same throughout the territory - 34%. The surface temperature drops to -1°C, and the average values vary from 5°C to 7°C.

The development of fishing is facilitated by the presence of ice pike, whale, southern blue whiting, grenadier, mullet, hammerhead fish. Walruses, sperm whales, seals live here. In total, the pool has about 100 species of fish.

mediterranean

Divides the northern part of Africa from the southern part of Europe and in some places washes Western Asia. It is of great importance in modern tourism and cargo transportation. The seas and bays, or rather half of their names in the Atlantic Ocean, fall on the Mediterranean Sea.

The International Hydrographic Organization includes 7 basins in the inland seas of the Mediterranean Sea:

Ligurian (15 thousand sq. km);
Alboran (53 thousand sq. km);
Balearic (86 thousand sq. km);
Adriatic (138.6 thousand sq. km);
Ionian (169 thousand sq. km);
Aegean (214 thousand sq. km);
Tyrrhenian (275 thousand sq. km).

The unrecognized seas include:

Marble;
Cretan;
Tyrrhenian;
Icarian;
Levantine;
Cypriot;
Sardinian;
Libyan;
Myrtoian;
Thracian;
Cilician.

The total sea area is 2.5 million square meters. km, and the volume - 3.839 million cubic meters. m. Its deepest point is the Deep Basin, with a mark of 5121 m. The average depth is 1541 m.

The temperature on the surface drops as you approach the ocean. In summer, the temperature in the eastern part is 27-30°C, in the center it is 25°C, and in the west - from 19°C. In the east and in the central parts in winter, the temperature rises from south to north from 17°С to 8°С, respectively, and in the west - in the region from 11°С to 15°С.

Due to high temperatures, less water evaporates in the west and its salinity is 36°C, while in the east it exceeds 39°C.

A meager amount of fish is isolated by a small amount of plankton. The fauna includes crayfish, white-bellied seals, sea turtles, anchovies, mullets, rays. Of the invertebrates, squids, octopuses, jellyfish, spiny lobsters, sponges and corals live in the sea.

Wedell

It is isolated from the east by the Coates Land, and from the west by the Antarctic Peninsula. Its area is 2.92 million square meters. km, and the volume is 329.7 thousand cubic meters. km. The deepest point is located in the northern part of the sea and is 6820 m, and relative shallow water is observed in the south and southwest - 500 m.

The average depth is about 3000 m. In the south, 1/7 of the territory is occupied by the Ronne and Filchner glaciers. During most of the year it is covered with ice due to a temperature of -1.8°C.

Black

Connected to the Sea of Marmara through the Dardanelles. The coastline of 3400 km washes Ukraine, Georgia, Russia, Turkey, Romania, Abkhazia and Bulgaria. Its area is 422 thousand square meters. km, and the volume exceeds 555 thousand km³. The average depth is 1240 m, and the maximum reaches 2210 m.

The temperature in the north in winter drops to -3°С, and in summer it is +23°С, +25°С. The southern part has a milder climate, and its temperature drops to +7°C in winter and rises to +23°C in summer. The northwestern part receives up to 300 mm of precipitation per year, and the Caucasian part exceeds this figure by 5 times.

Of the algae in the pool, cystorhiza, cladophora, and phyllophora grow. Of the fish live mackerel, beluga, horse mackerel, herring, anchovy. More than 500 types of crustaceans, 200 types of molluscs. Due to the large amount of hydrogen sulfide at a depth of 150-200 m, only anaerobic bacteria function. The high salinity of the sea also affected the scarcity.

Major gulfs of the Atlantic Ocean

The seas and bays of the Atlantic Ocean were formed due to the large indentation of the coast - once Pangea split into Laurasia and Gondwana. There are not only individual bays of the ocean, but also bays of the seas.

Bay of Biscay

It washes the territory from the city of Brest to Cape Ortegal. Stretches for 400 km. It borders on the north with France and Italy. It occupies an area of 223 thousand square meters. km. ITS average depth is 15-17 m, and the maximum is 4735 m.

In winter, the wind speed reaches 113 km/h. The northern part in summer has a temperature of 10 ° C, and in summer it drops by 2 times. The water temperature in the southern part is 12°C in winter and 22°C in summer. The salinity of the water is 35‰. Of the crustaceans, sea urchins, crabs, and shrimps live in the sea. Beluga whales, stingrays, dolphins, whales and several species of sharks live.

Gulf of Bothnia

The bay is located north of the Baltic Sea, between Sweden and Finland. It is separated from the south by the Aland Islands. Covers an area of 117 sq. km. The average depth is 60 m and the deepest is 295 m. Its maximum width is 240 km and its length is 668 km.

Water freezes in 5 out of 12 months. In winter, the water temperature does not fall below 0°C, and in summer it rises to 9-13°C. The water in the north has a salinity of 1-3‰, and in the south 4-5‰. Precipitation falls 550 mm per year. The vegetation of the bay is sparse. Of the fish, there are pike, pike perch, grayling, trout, sprats, salmon, perch and whitefish. Of the endangered species, there are otter, guinea pig and ringed seal.

bristol bay

The bay was formerly known as the Severn Sea and separates South West England from South Wales. considered a channel. It has a width of 50 m and a length of 135 m. At the mouth of the channel, the depth does not reach 10 m, and the coastline on both sides exceeds 1500 km. Gulls, fulmars, linnets, robins live in the reserves of its territory.

gulf of guinea

It is located at the intersection of the prime meridian and the equator. It is isolated by capes Palmeirinhas and Palmasi. It has an area of 1.533 million square meters. km. Its maximum depth is 6363 m, and the average is 2579 m. It is divided into the bays of Biafra and Benin. The bay is rich in oil. Piracy is developed on its territory.

Surface water temperature does not fall below 25°C. Precipitation falls a record amount for Africa - 9000 mm. Closer to the ocean, the waters have a salinity of 35 ‰. In the mouths of the rivers, this figure drops to 20-30 ‰. The pool is inhabited by different types of sharks, crabs, shrimps, crustaceans, stingrays, swordfish, tuna, sailfish.

Gulf of Maine

Located between Nova Scotia and Cape Cod. It has an area of 95 thousand square meters. km. The average depth is 227 m. Its maximum depth is 329 m. In February and March, the water temperature reaches 2 °C. The maximum temperature on the surface of the bay is observed in August - 21 °C.

Gulf of Saint Lawrence

It is the mouth of the river of the same name. It is considered the largest estuary and semi-enclosed sea. Washes the coast of Canada. In the north it borders with the Labrador Peninsula. It is bounded to the south and east by the islands of Cape Breton and Newfoundland. To the west is North America.

Its area is 226 thousand km². Volume - 34500 km³. The southern part has a depth of 60-80 m. The northern part is 400-500 m. The average depth is 152 m and the maximum depth is 530 m.

It has a monsoon climate. The water temperature in summer reaches 15°C, and in winter it drops below -1°C. The western part of the bay has a salinity of 12-15‰, and in the northeast it reaches 32‰. The bottom has a temperature of 5°C and a salinity of 35‰. At a depth of 100 m, the temperature is kept at 0°C, and the salinity is 32‰.

Gulf of Mexico

The seas and gulfs of the Atlantic Ocean include the largest gulf in the world, the Gulf of Mexico. Often referred to as the American Mediterranean Sea and considered inland. Its area is 1.543 million square meters. km, and the volume is 2.332 km³.

It washes the south of the United States, the northeast of Mexico and the western part of the Cuban Island. The maximum depth is 4384 m, and the average is 1615. The coastline with the United States and Mexico extends for 4500 km.

The intensely heated surface serves as energy for Hurricanes and storms. To a depth of 2000 m, salinity reaches 36.9‰. Deeper - 35‰. Precipitation is 1000-12000 mm. The average temperature in summer is 29°C, while in winter it drops from 25°C to 18°C from north to south. Tropical climate.

Rich in oil and gas. It serves as an important shipping point for neighboring countries. After the disaster in 2010, it became significantly contaminated - more than 760 million tons of oil fell into the bay and resulted in the death of hundreds of birds and animals.

There are lobsters, shrimps, bluefish, tuna, marlin, menhaden, swordfish, flounder, Antantic tarpons, whose weight is 50-150 kg, and the Mexican filamentous stingray, which lives only in these waters.

Gulf of Riga

Gulf of the Baltic Sea. Its southern part washes Latvia, and the northern borders with Estonia. Separated from the Baltic Sea by the Moonsund Archipelago. The area of the bay is 18.1 thousand square meters. km. The maximum depth is 67 m, and the average is 26.

In winter, the bay is covered with ice - the water temperature drops to -1°C. In summer the water heats up to 18°C. Salinity is relatively low - 3.5-6‰. On the banks, the water is 26-28‰, and in the center 22-23‰.

The Gulf of Finland

The bay washes the shores of Estonia, Russia and Finland. It occupies the eastern part of the Baltic Sea. The area is 29.5 thousand square meters. km. The average depth of the basin does not exceed 38 m, and the deepest point is at a depth of 121 m.

In winter, the temperature drops to 0°C, and from the end of November to the end of April it freezes. In summer the temperature fluctuates around 15-17C°C. The water surface has a salinity of 0.2‰ and increases by 9 units. The bottom is relatively higher, from 0.3‰ to 11‰. With Western Winds, the basin causes floods in St. Petersburg. Autumn storms are observed.

On the south coast, there are Kotelsky, Lebyazhy, Gostilitsky and Kurgalsky wildlife preserves. Ringed and gray seals listed in the Red Book live on its territory. Of the endemic fish, the Baltic cod and herring are found. Eel, crucian carp, lamprey, flounder, pike, ruff, cod are found in its pool.

Despite the fact that the Atlantic Ocean is in many ways inferior to the Pacific, its seas and bays have broken world records in some criteria:

The Gulf of Mexico is the largest bay in the world;
the Wedell Sea is the cleanest and most transparent sea;
The Sargasso Sea is the calmest sea;
The West Wind Current is the largest current in the world.

Article formatting: Mila Fridan

Video about the seas and bays in the Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean:

ADRIATIC SEA

SEA OF AZOV

BALTIC SEA

IONIAN SEA

IRISH SEA

CARIBBEAN SEA

SEA OF MARBLE

SARGASSO SEA

NORTH SEA

SEA SCOSH (SCOTIA)

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

TYRRHENIAN SEA

SEA WEDDELL

BLACK SEA

AEGEAN SEA

Many seas wash the shores of one or more countries. Some of these seas are huge, others are very small... Only the inland seas are not part of the ocean.

After the Earth formed from a bunch of gas and dust 4.5 billion years ago, the temperature on the planet dropped and the vapor contained in the atmosphere condensed (turned into liquid when cooled), settling on the surface in the form of rain. From this water, the world ocean was formed, subsequently divided by the continents into four oceans. These oceans include numerous coastal seas, often interconnected.

The largest seas of the Pacific Ocean

Philippine Sea
Area: 5.7 million km2, located between Taiwan in the north, the Marianne Islands in the east, the Caroline Islands in the southeast and the Philippines in the west.

coral sea
Area: 4 million km 2, bounded in the west by Australia, Papua New Guinea in the north, Vanuatu in the east and New Caledonia

South China Sea
Area: 3.5 million km 2, located between the Philippines in the east, Malaysia in the south, Vietnam in the west and China in the north

tasman sea
Area: 3.3 million km 2, washes Australia in the west and New Zealand in the east and separates the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Bering Sea
Area: 2.3 million km 2, located between Chukotka (Russia) in the west and Alaska (USA) in the east.

Japanese Sea
Area: 970,000 km2, located between the Russian Far East in the northwest, Korea in the west and Japan in the east.

Major seas of the Atlantic Ocean

Sargasso Sea
Area: 4 million km 2, located between Florida (USA) in the west and the northern Antilles in the south.

Composition of sea water

Sea water is approximately 96% water and 4% salt. Apart from the Dead Sea, the saltiest sea in the world is the Red Sea: it contains 44 grams of salt per liter of water (against 35 grams on average for most seas). Such a high salt content is due to the fact that in this hot region, water evaporates faster.

gulf of guinea
Area: 1.5 million km 2, located at the latitude of the Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.

Mediterranean Sea
Area: 2.5 million km 2, surrounded by Europe in the north, Western Asia in the east and North Africa in the south.

Antilles Sea
Area: 2.5 million km 2, located between the Antilles in the east, the coast of South America in the South and Central America in the West.

Gulf of Mexico
Area: 1.5 million km 2, it is adjacent to the southern coast of the United States from the north and Mexico from the west.

Baltic Sea
Area: 372,730 km 2 , washes Russia and Finland in the north, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the east, Poland and Germany in the south and Denmark with Sweden in the west.

North Sea
Area: 570,000 km2, bordered by Scandinavia to the east, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France to the south, and Great Britain to the west.

Major seas of the Indian Ocean

Arabian Sea
Area: 3.5 million km 2, washes the Arabian Peninsula in the west, Pakistan in the north and India in the east.

bay of bengal
Area: 2.1 million km 2, located between the coasts of India in the west, Bangladesh in the north, Myanmar (Burma) in the northeast, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the southeast and Sri Lanka in the southwest.

Great Australian Bight (Australian Bight)
Area: 1.3 million km 2, extends along the southern coast of Australia.

Arafura Sea
Area: 1 million km 2, located between Papua New Guinea in the northwest, Indonesia in the west and Australia in the south.

mozambique channel
Area: 1.4 million km 2, located near Africa, between the coasts of Mozambique in the west and Madagascar in the east.

The largest seas of the Arctic Ocean

Barencevo sea
Area: 1.4 million km 2, washes the coast of Norway in the west and Russia in the east.

Greenland Sea
Area: 1.2 million km 2, bounded by Greenland in the west and the island of Svalbard (Norway) in the east.

East-Siberian Sea
Area: 900,000 km 2, washes the coast of Siberia.

The largest seas of Antarctica

inland seas

Inland, or closed, seas are completely surrounded by land. The Black and Caspian Seas are the largest of them.

Black Sea
Area: 461,000 km2. It is surrounded by Romania and Bulgaria to the west, Russia and Ukraine to the north, Georgia to the east and Turkey to the south. It communicates with the Mediterranean Sea through the Sea of Marmara.

Bellingshausen Sea
Area: 1.2 million km 2, located near Antarctica.

Caspian Sea
Area: 376,000 km2, located between Azerbaijan in the west, Russia in the northwest, Kazakhstan in the north and east, Turkmenistan in the southeast and Iran in the south.

Ross Sea
Area: 960,000 km2, located north of Antarctica.

Weddell Sea
Area: 1.9 million km 2, located between the South Orkney Islands (UK) and the South Shetland Islands (UK) in the north and Antarctica in the south.

The Dead Sea is so salty that there are no living organisms in it.

ATLANTIC OCEAN(Latin name Mare Atlanticum, Greek 'Ατλαντίς - denoted the space between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Canary Islands, the whole ocean was called Oceanus Occidentalis - Western ok.), the second largest ocean on Earth (after the Pacific ok.), part World approx. Modern name first appeared in 1507 on the map of the Lorraine cartographer M. Waldseemüller.

Physical-geographical sketch

General information

In the north, the border of A. o. with the Arctic basin approx. runs along the east. Hudson Strait entrance, then through Davis Strait. and along the coast. Greenland to Cape Brewster, through the Danish Strait. to Cape Rydinupyur on about. Iceland, along its coast to Cape Gerpir (Terpire), then to the Faroe Islands, then to the Shetland Islands and along 61 ° N. sh. to the coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In the east of A. about. bounded by the shores of Europe and Africa, in the west - by the shores of the North. America and South. America. The border of A. o. with Indian ca. carried out along the line passing from Cape Igolny along the meridian 20 ° E. to the coast of Antarctica. The border with the Pacific carried out from Cape Horn along the meridian 68 ° 04′ W. or the shortest distance from Yuzh. America to the Antarctic Peninsula through the strait. Drake, from Fr. Oste to Cape Sternek. South part A. o. sometimes called the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, drawing the border along the subantarctic zone. convergence (approximately 40° S). In some works division A. about is offered. to Sev. and Yuzh. The Atlantic Oceans, but it is more common to consider it as a single ocean. A. o. - the most biologically productive of the oceans. It contains the longest underwater ocean. ridge - Mid-Atlantic Ridge; the only sea that does not have solid shores, limited by currents - Sargasso Sea; hall. fandi with the highest tidal wave; to the basin of A. o. applies Black Sea with a unique hydrogen sulfide layer.

A. o. stretches from north to south for almost 15 thousand km, its smallest width is approx. 2830 km in the equatorial part, the largest - 6700 km (along the parallel of 30 ° N). Area A. o. with seas, bays and straits 91.66 million km 2, without them - 76.97 million km 2. The volume of water is 329.66 million km 3, without seas, bays and straits - 300.19 million km 3. Wed depth 3597 m, maximum - 8742 m (chute Puerto Rico). The most easily accessible for development shelf zone of the ocean (with depths up to 200 m) occupies approx. 5% of its area (or 8.6%, if we take into account the seas, bays and straits), its area is larger than in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and significantly less than in the Arctic Ocean. Areas with depths from 200 m to 3000 m (continental slope zone) occupy 16.3% of the ocean area, or 20.7%, taking into account the seas and bays, more than 70% - the ocean floor (abyssal zone). See map.

Seas

In the basin of A. o. - numerous. seas, which are divided into: internal - Baltic, Azov, Black, Marmara and Mediterranean (in the latter, in turn, the seas are distinguished: Adriatic, Alboran, Balearic, Ionian, Cypriot, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Aegean); interisland - Irish and int. sea west. the coast of Scotland; marginal - Labrador, Northern, Sargasso, Caribbean, Scotia (Scotia), Weddell, Lazarev, zap. part of Riiser-Larsen (see separate articles on the seas). The largest bays of the ocean: Biscay, Bristol, Guinean, Mexican, Maine, St. Lawrence. The most important straits of the ocean: Great Belt, Bosphorus, Gibraltar, Dardanelles, Danish, Davis, Drake, Øresund (Sund), Cabota, Kattegat, Kerch, English Channel (including Pas de Calais), Lesser Belt, Messinian, Skagerrak , Florida, Yucatan.

Islands

Unlike other oceans, in A. o. there are few seamounts, guyots and coral reefs, and there are no coastal reefs. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe islands of A. o. OK. 1070 thousand km 2. Main groups of islands are located on the outskirts of the continents: British (Great Britain, Ireland, etc.) - the largest in area, Greater Antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, etc.), Newfoundland, Iceland, the Tierra del Fuego archipelago (Land of Fire, Oste, Navarino) , Marajo, Sicily, Sardinia, Lesser Antilles, Falkland (Malvinas), Bahamas, etc. Small islands are found in the open ocean: Azores, Sao Paulo, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha, Bouvet (on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge), etc. .

coast

Coastline in the north. parts of A. o. heavily indented (see also Shore ), almost all major inland seas and bays are located here, in the south. parts of A. o. the banks are slightly indented. The coast of Greenland, Iceland and the coast of Norway preim. tectonic-glacial division of fjord and fiard types. To the south, in Belgium, they give way to sandy shallow shores. Coast of Flanders arr. arts. origin (coastal dams, polders, canals, etc.). The coast of UK and about. Ireland abrasion-bay, high limestone cliffs alternate with sandy beaches and muddy lands. The Cotentin Peninsula has rocky shores, sandy and gravel beaches. Sev. the coast of the Iberian Peninsula is composed of rocks, to the south, off the coast of Portugal, sandy beaches predominate, often fencing off lagoons. Sandy beaches also border the shores of the West. Sahara and Mauritania. To the south of Cape Zeleny there are leveled abrasion-bay shores with mangrove thickets. Zap. the Ivory Coast section has an accumulative coast with rocky headlands. To the southeast, to the vast delta of the river. Niger, - accumulative coast with means. the number of spits, lagoons. In the southwest Africa - accumulative, less often abrasion-bay shores with extensive sandy beaches. The shores of southern Africa of the abrasion-bay type are composed of solid crystalline. breeds. Coasts of the Arctic. Canadas are abrasive, with high cliffs, glacial deposits and limestones. In east. Canada and sowing. parts of the hall. St. Lawrence are intensively eroded limestone and sandstone cliffs. To the west and south of the hall. St. Lawrence - wide beaches. On the shores of the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, Quebec, Newfoundland - outcrops of solid crystalline. breeds. From about 40 ° N. sh. to Cape Canaveral in the USA (Florida) - alternation of leveled accumulative and abrasion types of coasts, composed of loose rocks. Coast of the Gulf of Mexico. low-lying, bordered by mangroves in Florida, sand barriers in Texas, and deltaic shores in Louisiana. On the Yucatan Peninsula - cemented beach sediments, to the west of the peninsula - an alluvial-marine plain with coastal ridges. On the coast of the Caribbean Sea, abrasion and accumulative areas alternate with mangrove swamps, alongshore barriers, and sandy beaches. South of 10° N. sh. accumulative banks are common, composed of material carried out from the mouth of the river. Amazon and other rivers. In the northeast of Brazil - a sandy coast with mangroves, interrupted by river estuaries. From Cape Kalkanyar to 30°S sh. - high deep coast of abrasion type. To the south (off the coast of Uruguay) there is an abrasion-type coast composed of clays, loess and sand and gravel deposits. In Patagonia, the coasts are represented by high (up to 200 m) cliffs with loose deposits. The shores of Antarctica are 90% composed of ice and belong to the ice and thermal abrasion type.

Bottom relief

At the bottom of A. o. distinguish the following major geomorphological. provinces: the underwater margin of the continents (shelf and continental slope), the ocean floor (deep basins, abyssal plains, zones of abyssal hills, uplifts, mountains, deep-sea trenches), mid-oceanic. ridges.

The boundary of the continental shelf (shelf) A. o. takes place on Wed. at depths of 100–200 m, its position can vary from 40–70 m (near Cape Hatteras and the Florida Peninsula) to 300–350 m (Cape Weddell). The shelf width varies from 15–30 km (Northeast Brazil, Iberian Peninsula) to several hundred km (Northern Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Newfoundland Bank). In high latitudes, the shelf relief is complex and bears traces of glacial influence. Numerous uplifts (banks) are separated by longitudinal and transverse valleys or trenches. Off the coast of Antarctica on the shelf are ice shelves. At low latitudes, the shelf surface is more leveled, especially in the areas where terrigenous material is carried out by rivers. It is crossed by transverse valleys, often turning into canyons of the continental slope.

The slope of the continental slope of the ocean is cf. 1–2° and varies from 1° (areas of Gibraltar, the Shetland Islands, parts of the coast of Africa, etc.) to 15–20° off the coast of France and the Bahamas. The height of the continental slope varies from 0.9–1.7 km near the Shetland Islands and Ireland to 7–8 km in the area of the Bahamas and the Puerto Rico Trench. Active margins are characterized by high seismicity. The surface of the slope is dissected in places by steps, ledges and terraces of tectonic and accumulative origin and longitudinal canyons. At the foot of the continental slope, gently sloping hills are often located. up to 300 m and shallow underwater valleys.

In the middle part of the bottom of A. o. is the largest mountain system of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from about. Iceland to about. Bouvet at 18,000 km. The width of the ridge is from several hundred to 1000 km. The crest of the ridge runs close to the midline of the ocean, dividing it to the east. and app. parts. On both sides of the ridge there are deep-sea basins separated by bottom uplifts. In zap. parts of A. o. Basins are distinguished from north to south: Labradorskaya (with depths of 3000–4000 m); Newfoundland (4200–5000 m); North American Basin(5000–7000 m), which includes the abyssal plains of Som, Hatteras and Nares; Guiana (4500–5000 m) with the Demerara and Ceara plains; brazilian basin(5000–5500 m) with the abyssal plain of Pernambuco; Argentinean (5000–6000 m). In east. parts of A. o. basins are located: Western European (up to 5000 m), Iberian (5200–5800 m), Canary (over 6000 m), Zeleny Cape (up to 6000 m), Sierra Leone (about 5000 m), Guinea (over 6000 m). 5000 m), Angolan (up to 6000 m), Cape (over 5000 m) with the abyssal plains of the same name. To the south is the African-Antarctic Basin with the abyssal Weddell Plain. The bottoms of deep-water basins at the foot of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are occupied by the zone of abyssal hills. The basins are separated by the Bermuda, Rio Grande, Rockall, Sierra Leone, and other uplifts, and by the Kitovy, Newfoundland, and other ridges.

Seamounts (isolated conical elevations 1,000 m or more high) at the bottom of the sea. concentrated preim. in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In the deep-water part, large groups of seamounts are found north of Bermuda, in the Gibraltar sector, near the northeast. ledge South. America, in the Guinea Hall. and west of South. Africa.

Deep sea trenches of Puerto Rico, Caiman(7090 m), South Sandwich Trench(8264 m) are located near the island arcs. gutter Romansh(7856 m) is a major fault. The steepness of the slopes of deep-sea trenches is from 11° to 20°. The bottom of the troughs is flat, leveled by accumulation processes.

Geological structure

A. o. arose as a result of the collapse of the Late Paleozoic supercontinent Pangea during the Jurassic. It is characterized by a sharp predominance of passive margins. A. o. borders on adjacent continents transform faults south of about. Newfoundland, along the north. coast of the Gulf of Guinea., along the Falkland underwater plateau and the Agulhas plateau in the south. parts of the ocean. Active margins are observed at areas (in the region of the Lesser Antilles arc and the arc of the South Sandwich Islands), where the subsidence occurs ( subduction) lithosphere A. o. The Gibraltar subduction zone, limited in length, has been identified in the Gulf of Cadiz.

In the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the bottom is being pushed apart ( spreading) and the formation of oceanic. bark at a rate of up to 2 cm per year. Characterized by high seismic and volcanic. activity. In the north, paleospreading ridges branch off from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge into Cape Labrador and into the Bay of Biscay. In the axial part of the ridge, a rift valley is pronounced, which is absent in the extreme south and on the b. including the Reykjanes Ridge. Within its limits - volcanic. uplifts, solidified lava lakes, basaltic lava flows in the form of pipes (pillow-basalts). To the Center. The Atlantic found fields of metal-bearing hydrotherm, many of which form hydrothermal structures at the outlet (composed of sulfides, sulfates and metal oxides); installed metaliferous sediments. At the foot of the slopes of the valley there are screes and landslides, consisting of blocks and crushed stone of oceanic rocks. bark (basalts, gabbro, peridotites). The age of the crust within the Oligocene ridge is modern. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the zones west. and east. abyssal plains, where oceanich. The basement is overlain by a sedimentary cover, the thickness of which increases towards the continental foothills up to 10–13 km due to the appearance of older horizons in the section and the influx of clastic material from land. In the same direction, the age of the oceans is increasing. crust, reaching the Early Cretaceous (north of Middle Jurassic Florida). Abyssal plains are practically aseismic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is crossed by numerous transform faults leading to adjacent abyssal plains. The thickening of such faults is observed in the equatorial zone (up to 12 per 1700 km). The largest transform faults (Vima, São Paulo, Romansh, etc.) are accompanied by deep incisions (troughs) on the ocean floor. The entire section of the oceanic is opened in them. crust and partially upper mantle; protrusions (cold intrusions) of serpentinized peridotites are widely developed, forming ridges elongated along the strike of the faults. Mn. transform faults are transoceanic, or main (demarcation). In A. o. there are so-called. intraplate uplifts represented by underwater plateaus, aseismic ridges and islands. They have an oceanic a bark of the increased power also have hl. arr. volcanic origin. Many of them were formed as a result of the action mantle plumes; some originated at the intersection of the spreading ridge by large transform faults. To the volcanic uplifts include: about. Iceland, about Bouvet, oh Madeira, the Canary Islands, the Cape Verde, the Azores, the paired uplifts of Sierra and Sierra Leone, the Rio Grande and the Whale Range, the Bermuda Uplift, the Cameroon group of volcanoes, and others. there are intraplate uplifts of non-volcanic. nature, which includes the underwater plateau of Rockall, separated from the British Isles by the same name. trog. The plateau represents microcontinent, detached from Greenland in the Paleocene. Another micro-continent that also broke away from Greenland is the Hebrides in northern Scotland. The underwater marginal plateaus off the coast of Newfoundland (Great Newfoundland, Flemish Cap) and off the coast of Portugal (Iberian) separated from the continents as a result of rifting in the late Jurassic - early Cretaceous.

A. o. is divided by transoceanic transform faults into segments with different opening times. From north to south, the Labrador-British, Newfoundland-Iberian, Central, Equatorial, Southern and Antarctic segments are distinguished. The opening of the Atlantic began in the Early Jurassic (about 200 million years ago) from the Central Segment. In the Triassic-Early Jurassic, oceanic spreading. the bottom was preceded by the continental rifting, traces of which are recorded in the form of semigrabens filled with clastic deposits on the Amer. and north - afri. the outskirts of the ocean. At the end of the Jurassic - the beginning of the Cretaceous, the Antarctic segment began to open up. In the early Cretaceous, spreading was experienced by Yuzh. segment in South. Atlantic and Newfoundland-Iberian segment in the North. Atlantic. The opening of the Labrador-British segment began at the end of the Early Cretaceous. At the end of the Late Cretaceous, the basin of the Labrador Sea arose here as a result of spreading on the side axis, which continued until the late Eocene. Sev. and Yuzh. The Atlantic united in the middle of the Cretaceous - Eocene during the formation of the Equatorial segment.

Bottom sediments

The thickness of the modern bottom sediments varies from a few m in the zone of the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to 5–10 km in the zones of transverse faults (for example, in the Romansh trench) and at the foot of the continental slope. In deep-water basins, their thickness varies from several tens to 1000 m. St. 67% of the ocean floor area (from Iceland in the north to 57–58 ° S) is covered with calcareous deposits formed by the remains of shells of planktonic organisms (chief sample foraminifera, coccolithophorid). Their composition varies from coarse sands (at depths up to 200 m) to silts. At depths greater than 4500–4700 m, calcareous muds are replaced by polygenic and siliceous planktonic sediments. The first take approx. 28.5% of the ocean floor area, lining the bottom of the basins, and represented red deep ocean clay(deep-sea clay silts). These sediments contain the amount of manganese (0.2–5%) and iron (5–10%) and a very small amount of carbonate material and silicon (up to 10%). Siliceous planktonic sediments occupy approx. 6.7% of the ocean floor area, of which diatom silts (formed by the skeletons of diatoms) are the most common. They are common off the coast of Antarctica and on the shelf of the Southwest. Africa. Radiolarian oozes (formed by skeletons of radiolarians) meet hl. arr. in the Angolan Basin. Along the coasts of the ocean, on the shelf and partly on the continental slopes, terrigenous sediments of various compositions (gravel-pebble, sandy, clayey, etc.) are developed. The composition and thickness of terrigenous sediments are determined by the bottom topography, the activity of solid material supply from land, and the mechanism of their transfer. Glacial precipitation carried by icebergs is distributed along the coast of Antarctica, about. Greenland, about. Newfoundland, Labrador Peninsula; composed of weakly sorted detrital material with the inclusion of boulders, mostly in the south of the A. o. Sediments (from coarse sand to silt) formed from pteropod shells are often found in the equatorial part. Coral sediments (coral breccias, pebbles, sands and silts) are localized in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and near the northeast. the coasts of Brazil; their ultimate depth is 3500 m. Volcanic sediments are developed near the volcanic. islands (Iceland, Azores, Canaries, Cape Verde, etc.) and are represented by fragments of volcanic. rocks, slag, pumice, volcanic. ashes. Modern chemogenic sediments are found on the Great Bahama Bank, in the Florida-Bahamas, Antilles regions (chemogenic and chemogenic-biogenic carbonates). In the basins of the North American, Brazilian, Green Cape there are ferromanganese nodules; their composition in AO: manganese (12.0–21.5%), iron (9.1–25.9%), titanium (up to 2.5%), nickel, cobalt, and copper (tenths of a percent ). Phosphorite nodules appear at depths of 200–400 m near the east. US coast and north-west. coast of Africa. Phosphorites are distributed along the east. coast of A. o. - from the Iberian Peninsula to Cape Agulhas.

Climate

Due to the large length of A. o. its waters are located in almost all natural climates. zones - from the subarctic in the north to the antarctic in the south. From the north and south, the ocean is widely open to the influence of the Arctic. and antarctic. waters and ice. The lowest air temperature is observed in the polar regions. Over the coast of Greenland, the temperature can drop to -50 ° C, and in the south. part of Cape Weddell recorded a temperature of –32.3 °C. In the equatorial region, the air temperature is 24–29 ° C. The pressure field over the ocean is characterized by a successive change of stable large baric formations. Above the ice domes of Greenland and Antarctica - anticyclones, in temperate latitudes North. and Yuzh. hemispheres (40–60°) - cyclones, at lower latitudes - anticyclones, separated by a zone of low pressure near the equator. This baric structure supports tropical. and equatorial latitudes steady winds east. directions (trade winds), in temperate latitudes - strong winds west. directions, which received the names of the sailors. "roaring forties". Strong winds are also characteristic of the Bay of Biscay. In the equatorial region, the interaction of the sowing. and south. baric systems leads to frequent tropical. cyclones (tropical hurricanes), the greatest activity of which is observed from July to November. Tropical horizontal dimensions. cyclones up to several hundred km. The wind speed in them is 30–100 m/s. They move, as a rule, from east to west at a speed of 15–20 km / h and reach their greatest strength over the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In areas of low pressure in temperate and equatorial latitudes, precipitation is frequent and heavy clouds are observed. So, at the equator, St. 2000 mm of precipitation per year, in temperate latitudes - 1000–1500 mm. In areas of high pressure (subtropics and tropics), the amount of precipitation decreases to 500–250 mm per year, and in areas adjacent to the desert coasts of Africa and in the South Atlantic High, to 100 mm or less per year. In areas where warm and cold currents meet, fogs are frequent, for example. in the Newfoundland Bank area and in the hall. La Plata.

Hydrological regime

Rivers and water balance With. In the basin of A. o. 19,860 km 3 of water are annually carried out by rivers, this is more than in any other ocean (about 45% of the total flow into the World Ocean). The largest rivers (with an annual flow of over 200 km 3): Amazon, Mississippi(flows into the Gulf of Mexico.), Saint Lawrence river, Congo, Niger, Danube(flows into the Black Sea) Paraná, Orinoco, Uruguay, Magdalena(flows into the Caribbean). However, the fresh water balance of A. o. negative: evaporation from its surface (100–125 thousand km 3 / year) significantly exceeds atmospheric precipitation (74–93 thousand km 3 / year), river and underground runoff (21 thousand km 3 / year) and ice melting and icebergs in the Arctic and Antarctic (about 3 thousand km 3 / year). The deficit of the water balance is compensated by the inflow of waters, Ch. arr. from the Pacific Ocean, through the Drake Strait with the course of the West Winds, 3,470 thousand km 3 / year enter in Pacific ok. only 210 thousand km 3 / year go. From the Arctic ca. through numerous straits in A. about. 260 thousand km 3 / year and 225 thousand km 3 / year are supplied by the Atlantic. water flows back into the Arctic Ocean. Water balance with Indian c. negative, in the Indian apprx. with the course of the West Winds, 4976 thousand km 3 / year are taken out, and come back with the Coastal Antarctic. current, deep and bottom waters, only 1692 thousand km 3 / year.

Temperature regime m. Wed. the temperature of the ocean waters as a whole is 4.04 ° C, and that of surface waters is 15.45 ° C. The distribution of water temperature on the surface is asymmetric with respect to the equator. The strong influence of the Antarctic waters leads to the fact that the surface waters of the South. hemisphere is almost 6 ° C colder than the North, the warmest waters of the open part of the ocean (thermal equator) are between 5 and 10 ° N. sh., i.e., shifted north of the geographic. equator. Features of large-scale water circulation lead to the fact that the water temperature on the surface near the west. coasts of the ocean are about 5 °C higher than those of the east. The warmest water temperature (28–29 ° C) on the surface is in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. in August, the lowest - off the coast of about. Greenland, about. Baffin Island, Labrador Peninsula and Antarctica, south of 60 °, where even in summer the water temperature does not rise above 0 ° C. The temperature of the waters in the layer Ch. thermocline (600–900 m) is approx. 8–9 °C, deeper, in intermediate waters, descends at cf. up to 5.5 °C (1.5–2 °C in Antarctic intermediate waters). In deep waters, the water temperature in cf. 2.3 °C, in the bottom 1.6 °C. At the very bottom, the temperature of the water increases slightly due to geothermal. heat flow.

Salinity In the waters of A. o. contains approx. 1.1×10 16 tons of salts. Wed the salinity of the waters of the entire ocean is 34.6‰, and that of surface waters is 35.3‰. The highest salinity (over 37.5‰) is observed on the surface in the subtropical. areas where the evaporation of water from the surface exceeds its inflow with atmospheric precipitation, the smallest (6–20‰) in the estuarine sections of large rivers flowing into the ocean. From the subtropics to high latitudes, salinity on the surface decreases to 32–33‰ under the influence of precipitation, ice, river and surface runoff. In temperate and tropical areas max. salinity values are on the surface, an intermediate salinity minimum is observed at depths of 600–800 m. parts of A. o. are characterized by a deep salinity maximum (more than 34.9‰), which is formed by highly saline Mediterranean waters. Deep waters of A. o. have a salinity of 34.7–35.1‰ and a temperature of 2–4 °C, near-bottom, occupying the deepest depressions of the ocean, respectively 34.7–34.8‰ and 1.6 °C.

Density The density of water depends on temperature and salinity; temperature is of greater importance in the formation of the water density field. Waters with the lowest density are located in the equatorial and tropical regions. zones with a high water temperature and a strong influence of the flow of such rivers as the Amazon, Niger, Congo, etc. (1021.0–1022.5 kg / m 3). In the south part of the ocean, the density of surface waters increases to 1025.0–1027.7 kg/m 3 , in the northern part – up to 1027.0–1027.8 kg/m 3 . Density of deep waters A. o. 1027.8–1027.9 kg / m 3.

Ice regime m. In the north. parts of A. o. first-year ice is formed Ch. arr. in the inner seas of temperate latitudes, multi-year ice is carried out from the Arctic approx. The boundary of the distribution of the ice cover in the sowing. parts of A. o. varies considerably, in winter, pack ice can reach decomp. years 50–55°N sh. There is no ice in summer. Antarctic border. In winter, multi-year ice passes at a distance of 1600-1800 km from the coast (approximately 55 ° S), in summer (February - March) ice is found only in the coastal strip of Antarctica and in Cape Weddell. Main icebergs are supplied by the ice sheets and ice shelves of Greenland and Antarctica. The total mass of icebergs coming from the Antarctic. glaciers, estimated at 1.6 × 10 12 tons per year, main. their source is the Filchner Ice Shelf in Cape Weddell. From the glaciers of the Arctic to the A. O. icebergs with a total mass of 0.2–0.3 × 10 12 tons arrive per year, in the main. from the Jacobshavn glacier (near Disko Island off the western coast of Greenland). Wed arctic lifespan. icebergs approx. 4 years, Antarctic a little more. The border of distribution of icebergs in sowing. parts of the ocean 40 ° N. sh., but in otd. cases they were observed up to 31 ° C. sh. In the south part of the boundary passes at 40 ° S. sh., in the center. parts of the ocean and at 35 ° S. sh. on the app. and east. periphery.

I flow. Water circulation A. o. subdivided into 8 quasi-stationary oceanic. gyres located almost symmetrically about the equator. From low to high latitudes in the North. and Yuzh. hemispheres are tropical. anticyclonic, tropical cyclonic, subtropical anticyclonic, subpolar cyclonic. oceanic cycles. Their boundaries, as a rule, are Ch. oceanic currents. A warm current begins off the Florida Peninsula Gulfstream. Taking in the warm waters Antilles Current And Florida Current, the Gulf Stream heads northeast and splits into several branches at high latitudes; the most significant of them are Irminger Current, which carries warm water into Davis Strait, the North Atlantic Current, norwegian current, going to the Norwegian Sea and further to the northeast, along the coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula. To meet them from Devisova Prospekt. comes out cold Labrador Current, whose waters can be traced off the coast of America to almost 30 ° N. sh. From Danish Strait. the cold East Greenland current flows into the ocean. In the low latitudes of A. o. warm temperatures move from east to west northern trade winds And South trade winds, between them, approximately 10 ° N. sh., from west to east there is an Intertrade countercurrent, which is active Ch. arr. summer in Sev. hemisphere. separates from the southern trade winds brazilian current, which runs from the equator to 40 ° S. sh. along the coast of America. Sev. branch of the South trade wind currents forms Guiana current, which is directed from south to northwest to the connection with the waters of the Northern trade winds. Off the coast of Africa from 20 ° N. sh. the warm Guinea current passes to the equator, in the summer the Intertrade countercurrent connects with it. In the south parts of A. o. crosses the cold West winds flow(Antarctic circumpolar current), which is included in the A. about. through the strait Drake, descends to 40 ° S. sh. and goes to the Indian ca. south of Africa. The Falkland current separates from it, reaching along the coast of America almost to the mouth of the river. Parana, the Benguela Current, running along the coast of Africa almost to the equator. Cold canary current runs from north to south - from the shores of the Iberian Peninsula to the Cape Verde Islands, where it passes into the Northern trade winds.

Deep circulation during e. Deep circulation and structure of waters A. o. are formed as a result of a change in their density during cooling of waters or in zones of mixing of waters decomp. origin, where the density increases as a result of the mixing of waters with decomp. salinity and temp. Subsurface waters are formed in the subtropical. latitudes and occupy a layer with a depth of 100–150 m to 400–500 m, with a temperature of 10–22 °C and a salinity of 34.8–36.0‰. Intermediate waters are formed in the subpolar regions and are located at depths from 400–500 m to 1000–1500 m, with a temperature of 3 to 7 °C and a salinity of 34.0–34.9‰. The circulation of subsurface and intermediate waters is generally anticyclonic. character. Deep waters are formed in high latitudes. and south. parts of the ocean. Waters formed in the Antarctic area, have the highest density and spread from south to north in the bottom layer, their temperature varies from negative (in high southern latitudes) to 2.5 ° C, salinity 34.64–34.89‰. Waters formed in high sowing. latitudes, move from north to south in a layer from 1500 to 3500 m, the temperature of these waters is from 2.5 to 3 ° C, salinity is 34.71–34.99‰. In the 1970s V. N. Stepanov and, later, V. S. Broker substantiated the scheme of planetary interoceanic transfer of energy and matter, which received the name. "global conveyor" or "global thermohaline circulation of the World Ocean". According to this theory, the relatively salty North Atlantic. waters reach the coast of Antarctica, mix with supercooled shelf water and, passing through the Indian Ocean, end their journey in the sowing. parts of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides and waves e. Tides in A. o. preim. semi-diurnal. Tidal wave height: 0.2–0.6 m in the open part of the ocean, a few cm in the Black Sea, 18 m in the bay. Fundy (the northern part of the Gulf of Maine in North America) is the highest in the world. The height of wind waves depends on the speed, exposure time and wind acceleration; during strong storms it can reach 17–18 m. 22–26 m.

Flora and fauna

The large length of the A. O., the variety of climatic. conditions, that is. inflow of fresh water and large upwellings provide a variety of living conditions. In total, approx. 200,000 species of plants and animals (including about 15,000 fish species, about 600 species of cephalopods, about 100 species of whales and pinnipeds). Life is distributed very unevenly in the ocean. There are three main the type of zonality of the distribution of life in the ocean: latitudinal, or climatic, vertical and circumcontinental. The density of life and its species diversity decrease with distance from the coast towards the open ocean and from the surface to deep waters. Species diversity also decreases from tropical. latitudes to high.

Planktonic organisms (phytoplankton and zooplankton) are the basis of the food chain in the ocean, osn. their mass lives in the upper zone of the ocean, where light penetrates. The highest plankton biomass is in high and temperate latitudes during spring and summer blooms (1–4 g/m3). During the year, biomass can change by 10–100 times. Main phytoplankton species - diatoms, zooplankton - copepods and euphausids (up to 90%), as well as chaetognaths, hydromedusae, ctenophores (in the north) and salps (in the south). At low latitudes, the plankton biomass varies from 0.001 g/m 3 in the centers of anticyclonics. gyres up to 0.3–0.5 g/m 3 in the Gulf of Mexico and Guinea. Phytoplankton is represented by Ch. arr. coccolithins and peridineas, the latter can develop in coastal waters in large quantities, causing catastrophic. red tide phenomenon. Low-latitude zooplankton is represented by copepods, chaetognaths, hyperids, hydromedusae, siphonophores, and other species. There are no clearly pronounced dominant zooplankton species in low latitudes.

Benthos is represented by large algae (macrophytes), which b. hours grow at the bottom of the shelf zone to a depth of 100 m and cover approx. 2% of the total area of the ocean floor. The development of phytobenthos is observed in those places where there are suitable conditions - soils suitable for anchoring to the bottom, the absence or moderate speeds of near-bottom currents, etc. In the high latitudes of the A. o. main part of the phytobenthos is made up of kelp and red algae. In the temperate zone, parts of the sea, along the American and European coasts, are brown algae (fucus and ascophyllum), kelp, desmarestia, and red algae (furcellaria, ahnfeltia, and others). Zostera is common on soft soils. In the temperate and cold zones of the south. parts of A. o. brown algae predominate. In the tropical in the littoral zone, due to strong heating and intense insolation, vegetation on the ground is practically absent. A special place is occupied by the Sargasso Cape ecosystem, where floating macrophytes (mainly three species of algae of the genus Sargassum) form clusters on the surface in the form of ribbons ranging in length from 100 m to several. kilometers.

The main part of the nekton biomass (actively swimming animals - fish, cephalopods, and mammals) are fish. The largest number of species (75%) lives in the shelf zone; with depth and with distance from the coast, the number of species decreases. For cold and temperate zones are characteristic: from fish - dec. species of cod, haddock, saithe, herring, flounder, catfish, conger eel, etc., herring and polar sharks; from mammals - pinnipeds (harp seal, hooded seal, etc.), decomp. species of cetaceans (whales, sperm whales, killer whales, pilot whales, bottlenose whales, etc.).

There is a great similarity between the faunas of temperate and high latitudes of both hemispheres. At least 100 species of animals are bipolar, that is, they are characteristic of both temperate and high zones. For the tropical A.'s zones about. characteristic: from fish - dec. sharks, flying fish, sailboats, decomp. species of tuna and glowing anchovies; from animals - sea turtles, sperm whales, river dolphin inia; numerous and cephalopods - diff. species of squid, octopus, etc.

Deep-sea fauna (zoobenthos) A. o. represented by sponges, corals, echinoderms, crustaceans, mollusks, decomp. worms.

Research History

Allocate three stages of research And. The first is characterized by the establishment of the boundaries of the ocean and the discovery of its individual objects. AT 12- 5th century BC e. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks and Romans left descriptions of maritime wanderings and the first sea charts. Their voyages reached the Iberian Peninsula, England and the mouth of the Elbe. In the 4th c. BC e.Piteas(Pytheas) while sailing to the North. Atlantic, he determined the coordinates of a number of points and described the tidal phenomena in the A. O. By the 1st century n. e. include references to the Canary Islands. In the 9th-10th centuries. Normans (RowdyEirik and his son Leif Eirikson) crossed the ocean, visited Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland and explored the shores of the North. America under 40° c. sh. In the eraGreat geographical discoveries(mid. 15th - mid. 17th centuries) navigators (mainly the Portuguese and Spaniards) mastered the way to India and China along the coast of Africa. The most outstanding voyages during this period were made by the Portuguese B.Diashem(1487), Genoese H.Columbus(1492–1503), the Englishman J.Cabot(1497) and the Portuguese Vasco dagama(1498); for the first time trying to measure the depths of the open parts of the ocean and the speed of surface currents. The first bathymetric map (depth map) was compiled in Spain in 1523. In 1520 F.Magellanfirst passed from A. o. in Pacific ok. strait, later named after him. In the 16th and 17th centuries Atlantic is intensively studied. coast of the North. America (English J.Davis, 1576–78, G. Hudson, 1610, W. Baffin, 1616, and other sailors whose names can be found on the map of the ocean). The Falkland Islands were discovered in 1591–92. South shores of A. o. - the mainland Antarctica - were discovered and first described by Rus. antarctic expedition F.F.Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarevain 1819–21. This completed the study of the boundaries of the ocean.

The second stage is characterized by the study of physical. properties of ocean waters, temperature, salinity, currents, etc. In 1749, the Englishman G. Ellis made the first temperature measurements at various depths, repeated by the Englishman J. cook(1772), Swiss O. Saussure(1780), Russian. I.F. Kruzenshtern(1803) and others. In the 19th century. A. o. becomes a testing ground for testing new methods of depth research, new equipment and new approaches to the organization of work. For the first time, bathometers, deep-sea thermometers, thermal depth gauges, deep-sea trawls and dredges are used. Of the most significant expeditions can be noted Rus. sailing on the ships "Rurik" (1815-18) and "Enterprise" (1823–26) under the direction of O. E.Kotzebue(1815–18); English on "Erebus" and "Terror" under the leadership of J.K.Ross(1840–43); Amer. on the "Arctic" under the leadership of M.F.Maury(1856). True complex oceanographic ocean exploration began with an expedition in English. corvette« Challenger "led by W. Thomson (1872-76). The following significant expeditions were carried out on the ships Gazelle (1874-76), Vityaz (1886-89), Valdivia (1898-99), Gauss (1901-03). From 1885 to 1922, a great contribution to the study of A. o. introduces Prince Albert I of Monaco, who organized and led expeditionary research on the yachts Irendel, Princess Alice, Irendel II, Princess Alice II in the north. parts of the ocean. In the same years he organized the Oceanographic Museum in Monaco. Since 1903, work began on the "standard" sections in the North Atlantic under the leadership of the International Council for the Study of the Sea (ICES) - the first international oceanographic. scientific organization that existed before the 1st World War.

The most significant expeditions between the world wars were carried out on the ships Meteor, Discovery II, Atlantis. In 1931, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) was formed, which is still active today and organizes and coordinates ocean research.

After the 2nd World War, the echo sounder began to be widely used to study the ocean floor. This made it possible to obtain a real picture of the topography of the ocean floor. In the 1950s–70s. carried out complex geophysical. and geological. A.'s research about. and established the features of the relief of its bottom and tectonics, the structure of the sedimentary stratum. Many large forms of bottom topography (submarine ridges, mountains, trenches, fault zones, vast basins and uplifts) have been identified, and geomorphological data have been compiled. and tectonic. cards. Unique results were obtained under the IODP International Deep Sea Ocean Drilling Program (1961–2015, ongoing).

The third stage of ocean research is aimed mainly at studying its role in the global processes of matter and energy transfer and its influence on climate formation. The complexity and wide range of research work required extensive international cooperation. The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR), formed in 1957, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC), which has been operating since 1960, and other international organizations play an important role in coordinating and organizing international research. In 1957-58, a lot of work was carried out within the framework of the first International Geophysical Year (IGY). Subsequently, major international projects were aimed both at the study of individual parts of the AO, for example, EQUALANT I–III (1963–64), Polygon-70 (1970), SICAR (1970–75), POLIMODE (1977–78 ), and A. o. as part of the World Ocean, for example, TOGA (1985–89), GEOSECS (1973–74), WOCE (1990–96), and others. the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle and more. other questions. In con. 1980s owls. deep-sea submersibles"World» unique ecosystems of geothermal regions of the ocean rift zone were studied. If in the beginning 80s it was ok. 20 international ocean research projects, then by the 21st century. St. 100. The largest programs:« International Geosphere-Biosphere Program» (since 1986, 77 countries participate), it includes projects« Dynamics of global ocean ecosystems» (GLOBES, 1995–2010), "Global flows of matter in the ocean» (JGOFS, 1988–2003), " Land-ocean interaction in the coastal zone» (LOICZ), Integral Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research (IMBER), Coastal Land-Ocean Interaction (LOICZ, 1993–2015), Ocean Surface-Lower Atmosphere Interaction Study (SOLAS, 2004–15, ongoing) ,« World Climate Research Program» (WCRP, since 1980, 50 countries participate), International Study of Biogeochemical Cycles and Large-Scale Distribution of Trace Elements and Their Isotopes in the Marine Environment (GEOTRACES, 2006–15, ongoing), and more. etc. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) is being developed. One of the main projects of the WCRP was the program "Climate and Ocean: Unsteadiness, Predictability and Variability" (CLIVAR, since 1995), which was based on the results of TOGA and WOCE. Ros. For many years, scientists have been conducting expeditionary studies of exchange processes at the border of the A. O. and the Arctic Ocean, circulation in the Drake Passage, distribution of cold Antarctic waters along deep-sea faults. Since 2005, the international ARGO program has been operating, in which observations are carried out by autonomous sounding instruments throughout the World Ocean (including AO), and the results are transmitted via artificial Earth satellites to data centers.

In November 2015, for the first time in the last 30 years, Ross made a voyage from Kronstadt to the shores of Antarctica. research vessel of the Baltic Fleet "Admiral Vladimirsky". It made a transition with a length of over 34 thousand sea. miles. Along the route, hydrographic, hydrological, hydrometeorological and radio navigation studies were carried out, information was collected to correct marine navigation charts, navigation manuals and manuals. Having rounded the southern tip of the African continent, the ship entered the marginal seas of Antarctica. He moored near the station "Progress", scientists exchanged with the staff of the station data on monitoring the ice situation, the melting of the Arctic ice, the weather. The expedition ended on 15.4.2016. In addition to the crew, hydrographers of the 6th Atlantic oceanographic department took part in the expedition. hydrographic expeditions. services of the Baltic Fleet, employees of Ros. state hydrometeorological University, the Institute of the Arctic and Antarctic, etc. The third part of the WOCE (The World Ocean Circulation Experiment) Oceanographic Atlas, dedicated to the Atlantic Ocean, has been completed. P. P. Shirshova.

Economic use

A. o. occupies an important place in the world economy among other oceans of our planet. Man's use of the sea, as well as other seas and oceans, follows several basic principles. directions: transport and communications, fishing, mining. resources, energy, recreation.

Transport

Already within 5 centuries A. about. occupies a leading role in maritime transport. With the opening of the Suez (1869) and Panama (1914) canals, short sea routes appeared between the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. To the share of A. o. accounts for approx. 3/5 of the cargo turnover of world shipping, in con. 20th century up to 3.5 billion tons of cargo per year was transported through its waters (according to IOC). OK. 1/2 of the volume of traffic is oil, gas and oil products, followed by general cargo, then iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite and alumina. Ch. the direction of transportation is the North Atlantic, which runs between 35–40 ° N. sh. and 55–60° N. sh. Main shipping routes connect the port cities of Europe, the USA (New York, Philadelphia) and Canada (Montreal). This direction adjoins the sea routes of the Norwegian, Northern and int. seas of Europe (Baltic, Mediterranean and Black). Transported to the main raw materials (coal, ores, cotton, timber, etc.) and general cargo. Dr. important directions of transportation - South Atlantic: Europe - Central (Panama, etc.) and South America (Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires); East Atlantic: Europe - South Africa (Cape Town); west-Atlantic: Sev. America, South America is southern Africa. Before the reconstruction of the Suez Canal (1981) b. hours of oil tankers from the Indian basin approx. was forced to go around Africa.

The transportation of passengers occupies an important place in the A. about. since the 19th century, when mass emigration from the Old World to America began. The first steam-sailing vessel, the Savannah, crossed the A. O. for 29 days in 1819. At the beginning. 19th century The Blue Ribbon Prize was established for passenger ships that will cross the ocean the fastest. This prize was awarded, for example, to such famous liners as Lusitania (4 days and 11 hours), Normandie (4 days and 3 hours), Queen Mary (4 days without 3 minutes). The last time the "Blue Ribbon" was awarded to the Amer. liner "United States" in 1952 (3 days and 10 hours). In the beginning. 21st century the duration of a passenger liner flight between London and New York is 5–6 days. Max. passenger transportation through A. o. fell on 1956–57, when more than 1 million people were transported a year; The majority of passengers prefer air transport (the record flight time for the Concorde supersonic airliner on the New York-London route is 2 hours 54 minutes). The first non-stop flight through A. about. committed 14-15.6.1919 English. pilots J. Alcock and A. W. Brown (Newfoundland - Ireland), the first non-stop flight through the A. about. alone (from continent to continent) 20–21.5.1927 – Amer. pilot C. Lindberg (New York - Paris). In the beginning. 21st century practically the entire flow of passengers through A. o. served by aviation.

Connection

In 1858, when there was no radio communication between the continents, through A. o. The first telegraph cable was laid. To con. 19th century 14 telegraph cables connected Europe with America and 1 with Cuba. In 1956, the first telephone cable was laid between the continents, by the mid-1990s. at the bottom of the ocean, St. 10 telephone lines. In 1988, the first transatlantic fiber-optic communication line was laid, at the beginning of the 21st century. there are 8 lines.

Fishing

A. o. considered the most productive ocean, its biological. resources are exploited by man most intensively. In A. o. fishing and seafood production account for 40–45% of the total world catch (area approx. 25% of the world approx.). The majority of the catch (up to 70%) consists of herring fish (herring, sardines, etc.), cod fish (cod, haddock, hake, whiting, saithe, saffron cod, etc.), flounder, halibut, and sea bass. Production of shellfish (oysters, mussels, squids, etc.) and crustaceans (lobsters, crabs) approx. 8%. According to FAO estimates, the annual catch of fish products in the A. about. is 85–90 million tons, but for most of the fishing areas of the Atlantic, the fish catch reached in the middle. 1990s its maximum and its increase is undesirable. The traditional and most productive fishing area is the north-east. part of the Arctic Ocean, including the North and Baltic Seas (mainly herring, cod, flounder, sprats, and mackerel). In the north-west. area of the ocean, on the Newfoundland banks, cod, herring, flounder, squid, etc. have been harvested for many centuries. In the center. parts of A. o. there is a catch of sardine, horse mackerel, mackerel, tuna, etc. In the south, on the Patagono-Falkland shelf elongated along the latitude, fishing for both warm-water species (tuna, marlin, swordfish, sardines, etc.) and cold-water species (blue whiting, hake , notothenia, toothfish, etc.). Off the coast of and southwest. African catch of sardine, anchovy and hake. In the Antarctic area of the ocean, planktonic crustaceans (krill), marine mammals, fish - notothenia, toothfish, silverfish, etc. are of commercial importance. 20th century in high-latitude sowing. and south. areas of the ocean were active fishing decomp. species of pinnipeds and cetaceans, but in recent decades it has declined sharply due to the depletion of biological. resources and thanks to environmental activities, including intergovernmental ones. agreements to limit their production.

Mineral resources

Miner is being developed more and more actively. wealth of the ocean floor. Deposits of oil and combustible gas have been studied more fully; belong to 1917, when oil production began in the industrial. scales in east. parts of the Maracaibo lagoon (Venezuela). The largest centers of marine production: the Venezuelan Gulf, the Maracaibo lagoon ( Maracaiba oil and gas basin), Mexican Hall. ( Gulf of Mexico oil and gas basin), hall. Pariah ( Orinok oil and gas basin), Brazilian shelf (Sergipe-Alagoas oil and gas basin), Gulf of Guinea. ( Gulf of Guinea oil and gas basin), Northern m. ( North Sea oil and gas region), etc. Alluvial deposits of heavy minerals are widespread along many coasts. The largest development of alluvial deposits of ilmenite, monocyte, zircon, rutile are carried out off the coast of Florida. Similar deposits are located in the Gulf of Mexico, off the east. US coasts, as well as Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and the Falkland Islands. On the shelf southwest. Africa is developing coastal marine diamond placers. Gold-bearing placers were found off the coast of Nova Scotia at depths of 25–45 m. In A. o. one of the world's largest iron ore deposits, Wabana, has been explored (in Conception Bay off the coast of Newfoundland); iron ore is also mined off the coast of Finland, Norway, and France. In the coastal waters of Great Britain and Canada, coal deposits are being developed, it is mined in mines located on land, the horizontal workings of which go under the seabed. On the shelf of the Gulf of Mexico. large sulfur deposits are being developed Gulf of Mexico sulfur-bearing province. In the coastal zone of the ocean, sand is mined for construction and production of glass, gravel. On the shelf east. US coasts and west. coasts of Africa, phosphorite-bearing sediments have been explored, but their development is still unprofitable. The total mass of phosphorites on the continental shelf is estimated at 300 billion tons. Large fields of ferromanganese nodules have been found at the bottom of the North American Basin and on the Blake Plateau; are estimated at 45 billion tons.

Recreational resources

From the 2nd floor. 20th century The use of recreational resources of the ocean is of great importance for the economies of coastal countries. Old resorts are being developed and new ones are being built. Since the 1970s ocean liners are laid down, intended only for cruises, they are distinguished by their large size (displacement of 70 thousand tons or more), an increased level of comfort and relative slowness. Main cruise ship routes A. o. – The Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas and the Mexican Hall. From con. 20 - early. 21st century scientific-tourist and extreme cruise routes are developing, mainly in the high latitudes of the North. and Yuzh. hemispheres. In addition to the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, the main resort centers are located in the Canary, Azores, Bermuda Islands, in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico.

Energy

The energy of sea tides A. o. is estimated at about 250 million kW. In the Middle Ages, tidal wave mills and sawmills were built in England and France. At the mouth of the river Rance (France) operates a tidal power plant. The use of the hydrothermal energy of the ocean (temperature difference in surface and deep waters) is also considered promising; the hydrothermal station operates on the coast of Côte d'Ivoire.

Port cities

On the banks of A. o. most of the world's major ports are located: in Western Europe - Rotterdam, Marseille, Antwerp, London, Liverpool, Genoa, Le Havre, Hamburg, Augusta, Southampton, Wilhelmshaven, Trieste, Dunkirk, Bremen, Venice, Gothenburg, Amsterdam, Naples, Nantes - St. Naser, Copenhagen; all in. America - New York, Houston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk - Newport, Montreal, Boston, New Orleans; in Yuzh. America - Maracaibo, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires; in Africa - Dakar, Abidjan, Cape Town. Ros. port cities do not have direct access to the sea. and are located on the banks int. the seas belonging to its basin: St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Baltiysk (Baltic Sea), Novorossiysk, Tuapse (Black Sea).