Anatomical planes and directions on the body of an animal. Location and direction of animal body parts

IN ANATOMY WHEN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY OF ANIMALS

Paraganglia - formations genetically and morphologically similar to the adrenal medulla. They are also scattered throughout the body.

I. PLANES, DIRECTIONS AND TERMS USED

IN ANATOMY WHEN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BODY OF ANIMALS

For a more accurate description of the topography and the relative position of individual parts and organs, the entire body of the animal is conventionally dissected by planes in three mutually perpendicular directions (Fig. 1).

Sagittal planes plani sagittalia(I) - vertical planes longitudinally dissecting the body from head to tail. They can be carried out in any number, but only one of them is the middle sagittal plane (median) planum medianum cuts the animal into two symmetrical halves - right and left, and it passes from the mouth to the tip of the tail. The direction from any sagittal plane outward is denoted as laterallateralis(1), and inward towards the median (median) plane - the medial medialis(2).

Frontal (dorsal) planes plani dorsalia(III) - these planes are also drawn along the body of the animal, but perpendicular to the sagittal, i.e., parallel to the horizontal plane. In relation to this plane, two directions are considered: dorsal(dorsal) dorsalis(3) - directed towards the contour of the back, and ventral(abdominal) ventralis(4) - oriented towards the contour of the abdomen.

Segmental (transverse) planes plani transversalia(II) - these planes pass across the body of the animal, perpendicular to the longitudinal planes, cutting it into separate sections (segments). In relation to these planes, two directions are considered:

a) on the body cranially e (cranial) cranialis(5) oriented towards the skull and caudal(tail) caudalis(6) oriented towards the tail;

b) on the head oral(oral) oralis(7) or nasal(nasal) nasalis, or rostral rostralis- oriented towards the entrance to the mouth or towards the top of the nose, and aboral(anti-gate) aboralis(8) - towards the beginning of the neck;

Rice. 1. Planes and directions

Planes: I - sagittal; II - segmental; III - frontal.

Directions: 1 - lateral; 2 - medial; 3 - dorsal; 4 - ventral; 5 - cranial; 6 - caudal; 7 - oral (nasal, rostral); 8 - aboral; 9 - palmar (volar); 10 - plantar; 11 - proximal; 12 - distal.

c) on the limbs - cranial and caudal, but only up to the hand and foot. In the region of the hand and foot, the anterior surface is called dorsal or dorsal dorsalis(3); posterior surface of the hand palmar or palmar(volar) palmaris seu volaris(9), and on the foot - plantar or plantar plantaris (10).

The directions along the long axis of the free limbs are defined in terms of: proximal - proximalis(11), i.e. the end of the leg closest to the body or any link closest to the body, and the distal - distalis(12) - the furthest from the body.

By combining the considered terms in various combinations, it is possible to indicate the dorsocaudal, ventromedial, craniodorsal, or any other direction on the body.

II. OSTEOLOGY (osteologia)

Osteology- the doctrine of the bones, which, together with cartilage and ligaments, form the skeleton. The skeleton is a mobile basis of the body, consisting of bones and cartilage, interconnected by means of joints and adhesions. Skeleton sceleton(Fig. 2) is a passive part of the apparatus of movement, which is a system of levers for attaching muscles, as active organs of movement, it is also a support and protection for internal organs.

The entire skeleton is divided into axial and peripheral. To axial The skeleton includes: the skeleton of the head, neck, trunk and tail. The skeleton of the neck, trunk and tail is based on the vertebrae. Together they form spinal column – columna vertebralis. The skeleton of the body also includes the chest, represented by the thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum.

Peripheral skeleton - represented by the skeleton of the thoracic and pelvic limbs.

Rice. 2 Horse Skeleton

A - cervical spine; B - thoracic spine; C - lumbar spine; D - sacral spine; E - tail section of the spinal column.

1 - scapula; 2 - humerus; 3 - ulna; 4 - radius; 5 - bones of the wrist; 6 - bones of the metacarpus; 7 - bones of the fingers; 8- sesamoid bones; 9- pelvic bones; 10 - femur; 11 - patella; 12 - tibia; 13 - fibula; 14 - tarsal bones; 15 - bones of the metatarsus.

Consider the structure of a vertebra using the example of a vertebra from the thoracic region, since only in it can complete bone segment, which includes a vertebra, a pair of ribs and an adjacent section of the sternum.

Vertebra – vertebra seu spondylus- in its structure refers to short, symmetrical bones of a mixed type. It consists of a body, an arch (arc) and processes (Fig. 3).

Vertebral body - corpus vertebrae(1) - is the most permanent columnar component. At its cranial end is a convex head caput vertebrae(2), on the caudal - concave fossa fossa vertebrae(3), on the ventral surface - ventral crest crista ventralis(4). On the sides of the heads and pits of the vertebral body there are small cranial and caudal costal fossae (facets) fovea costalis cranialis and caudalis(5, 6).

Arch (arc) of the vertebra arcus vertebrale lies dorsally from the body and forms the vertebral foramen together with the body foramen vertebrale(7). At the junction of the arch with the body there are paired cranial and caudal intervertebral (vertebral) notches incisura intervertebralis (vertebralis) cranialis and caudalis(8, 9). From adjacent (adjacent) notches, intervertebral foramens are formed foramen intervertebrale. An unpaired spinous process departs dorsally from the arch processus spinosus(ten). On the arches there are small paired cranial and caudal articular (arc) processes for connecting them to each other processus articularis cranialis and caudalis(11, 12); while the articular surface (facet) on the cranial articular processes is facing dorsally, and on the caudal processes - ventrally.

Transverse processes extend laterally from the arch processus transverses(thirteen). They carry an articular costal (transverse costal) fossa or facet fovea costalis transversalis(14) for connection with the tubercle of the rib, as well as a small rough mastoid process processus mamillaris(15) for muscle attachment.

Rice. 3. Thoracic vertebra

1 - vertebral body; 2 - head of the vertebra; 3 - fossa of the vertebra; 4 - ventral crest; 5 - cranial costal fossae (facets); 6 - caudal costal fossae (facets); 7 - vertebral foramen; 8 - cranial intervertebral (vertebral) cuttings; 9 - caudal intervertebral (vertebral) notches; 10 - spinous process; 11 - cranial articular processes; 12 - caudal articular processes; 13 - transverse process; 14 - costal (transverse costal fossa (facet); 15 - mastoid process.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE – vertebrae cervicales.

In mammals, the neck skeleton is formed by 7 vertebrae with a few exceptions (in the sloth - 6-9, in the manatee - 6). They are divided into typical- similar in structure to each other (according to the account 3, 4, 5, 6), and atypical(1, 2, 7).

A characteristic feature of typical cervical vertebrae (Fig. 4) is the presence of biramous (bifurcated) transverse costal processes (4) and intertransverse (transverse) foramens - foramen transversarium(5), - located at their base. In typical cervical vertebrae, the rudiments of the ribs grow to the transverse processes, therefore these processes are called not only transverse, but also transverse costal - processus costotransversarius.

Rice. 4. Typical cervical vertebrae of a horse

1 - head of the vertebra; 2 - fossa of the vertebra; 3 - spinous process; 4 - transverse costal processes; 5 - transverse hole; 6 - cranial articular processes; 7 - caudal articular processes;

Peculiarities:

In cattle typical cervical vertebrae have relatively short bodies (the vertebrae are almost cuboid), the heads are hemispherical, the spinous processes are short, rounded, thickened at the ends, their height gradually increases from 3 to 7, and the ventral crests are well defined.

At the pig the vertebrae are short, the arches are narrow, the interarch foramina are wide (the distance between the arches of adjacent vertebrae), the heads and fossae are flat, the spinous processes are relatively well developed, the ventral crests are absent, there are dorsoventral foramina at the base of the transverse costal processes (the lateral vertebral foramen are foramen vertebrale laterale.

At the horse the vertebral bodies are long, the heads are hemispherical in shape, the spinous processes are in the form of rough combs, the ventral crests are well developed (except for the 6th vertebra).

At the dog the vertebral bodies are relatively long, the heads and fossae are flat, set obliquely in relation to the body. The spinous process on the 3rd vertebra is absent, while on the rest, their height gradually increases in the caudal direction.

7th cervical vertebra (Fig. 5) unlike the typical ones, it has a short non-branching transverse costal process (1), without an intertransverse foramen in it. The spinous process is more developed than on typical cervical vertebrae. At the caudal end of the body, there are caudal costal fossae (3) for articulation with the heads of the first pair of ribs.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the spinous process is high and wide, stands vertically, the articular processes are wide and spaced from each other, the head and fossae are prominent (hemispherical).

At the pig the head and fossa of the vertebra are flat. There are lateral vertebral foramens running dorsoventrally.

At the horse the spinous process is relatively poorly developed, the head and fossa are well expressed, hemispherical in shape.

At the dog the spinous process is styloid in shape, the head and fossa are flat, placed obliquely in relation to the body.

Rice. 5. The seventh cervical vertebra of the horse

1 - transverse costal processes; 2 - spinous process; 3 - caudal costal fossae; 4 - cranial articular processes; 5 - caudal articular processes;

First cervical vertebra - or atlas - atlas(Fig. 6) - characterized by the absence of a body. It has an annular shape. On the atlas, dorsal and ventral arches (arcs) are distinguished - arcus dorsalis and ventralis with dorsal and ventral tubercles - tuberculum dorsale(1) and ventrale(2). The ventral arch replaces the body of the atlas. From the side of the vertebral foramen, it bears a facet (fossa) for the odontoid process of the 2nd cervical vertebra - fovea dentis(3). On the side of the atlas are wings - ala atlantis(4), which are modified transverse and articular processes fused into a lateral mass - massa lateralis. On the ventral surface of the wings is the wing fossa - fossa atlantis(5). At the cranial end of the atlas there are cranial articular fossae - fovea articularis cranialis s. atlantis(6) for connection with the condyles of the occipital bone, and on the caudal - caudal articular fossae - fovea articularis caudalis(7) - for connection with the 2nd cervical vertebra. At the anterior end of the wing of the atlas is a wing opening - foramen alare(8), connected by a gutter to the intervertebral foramen - foramen intervertebrale(nine). At the caudal end of the wings there is a transverse outlet - foramen transversarium (10).

Rice. 6. Atlas horse

A - dorsal surface; B - ventral surface.

1 - dorsal tubercle; 2 - ventral tubercle; 3 - facet (fossa) for the odontoid process of the 2nd cervical vertebra; 4 - wings of the atlas; 5 - wing fossa; 6 - cranial articular fossae; 7 - caudal articular fossae; 8 - wing hole; 9 - intervertebral foramen; 10 - transverse hole.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the wings are massive with a weakly pronounced fossa, lie horizontally, there is no transverse (intertransverse) opening.

At the pig the wings are narrow and thick, the alar fossa is small, the transverse foramen is located on the caudal margin of the atlas, it has the shape of a canal and opens into the alar fossa. The fossa for the odontoid process is deep. The ventral tubercle is directed caudally in the form of a process.

At the horse the wings of the atlas are thin and bent ventrally, as a result of which the wing fossae are deep. The transverse opening is located on the dorsal surface of the wing. Of the three holes, it is the larger one.

At the dog wings of atlas are flat, thin and long, elongated latero-caudally, set almost horizontally. The dorsal arch is wide and without tubercle. The wing opening has been replaced by a notch (11).

Rice. 7. First cervical vertebra (atlas)

A - cattle atlas; B - pig atlas; B - dog atlas.

Second cervical vertebra - axial, or epistrophy - axis s. epistropheus(Fig. 8) - the longest of the seven. It is characterized by the presence, instead of the head, of an odontoid process, or a tooth - dens(1) , spinous process in the form of a ridge - crista(2) , with weak non-branching transverse costal processes (3) with transverse foramina (4) in the form of a canal and cranial intertransverse foramina (5).

Rice. 8. Second cervical vertebra (epistrophy)

A - horse epistrophy; B - epistrophy of cattle; B - epistrophy of a pig; G - dog epistrophy.

Peculiarities:

In cattle the odontoid process looks like a hollow half-cylinder, and the crest looks like a square plate with a raised caudal edge.

At the pig the odontoid process is obtuse, cone-shaped, the crest is high, its posterior edge is raised dorsally, the anterior one is oblique. There are dorsoventral openings (6).

At the horse the odontoid process is semi-conical in shape with a flat dorsal surface and a convex ventral one. The powerful crest bifurcates caudally and fuses with the caudal articular processes. The ventral crest is well defined.

At the dog the odontoid process is long, cylindrical. The crest hangs over the odontoid process in the form of a beak, and merges caudally with the caudal articular processes. The cranial intervertebral foramina are replaced by notches.

thoracic vertebrae -vertebrae thoracales(Fig. 9) - characterized by the presence of two pairs - cranial and caudal costal facets (fossae) on the vertebral body, short transverse processes with a facet for the costal tubercle and well-developed spinous processes inclined caudally to the diaphragmatic vertebra - vertebrae anticlinalis. On the diaphragmatic vertebra, the spinous process is placed vertically. On subsequent vertebrae, the spinous processes are directed cranially. The last vertebra lacks caudal costal facets.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 13 (14) thoracic vertebrae. They are characterized by a rounded fitted body, the length of which exceeds the width. The costal facets, especially the caudal ones, are extensive. Instead of caudal intervertebral notches, there may be intervertebral foramen. The spinous processes are wide, lamellar with sharp, uneven edges. Diaphragmatic call -

Rice. 9. Thoracic vertebrae

A - the thoracic vertebra of the horse; B - thoracic vertebra of cattle; B - thoracic vertebra of a pig; G - thoracic vertebra of the dog.

nok is the last one.

At the pig 14-17 thoracic vertebrae, the shape of the body approaches the transverse oval, the length is less than the width. These vertebrae, along with the intervertebral foramina, also have dorsoventral (lateral) foramina passing through the base of the transverse processes. Spinous processes along the entire length of the same width with pointed edges. Diaphragmatic vertebrae - 11th.

At the horse 18 (19) thoracic vertebrae, their bodies are triangular in shape with deep costal fossae and well-defined ventral crests. The length of the body does not exceed the width. Instead of intervertebral foramina, as a rule, there are deep intervertebral caudal notches. Spinous processes with a wide caudal margin, club-shaped thickened at the apex. From the 1st vertebra, in which the spinous process is short, wedge-shaped, their height increases to the 4th, and then decreases to the 12th. Diaphragmatic vertebra 15 (14, 16), mastoid processes with pointed edges.

At the dog 13 (12) thoracic vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are transversely oval in shape, the length is inferior to the width, the costal fossae are flat. On the last four vertebrae, the cranial costal fossae are displaced from the heads to the lateral surface of the body, while the caudal fossae are absent. The spinous processes of most vertebrae are gently curved and narrowed towards the apex. Diaphragmatic vertebra - 11th. The last vertebrae have pronounced accessory processes - processus accessorius subulate shape.

The thoracic region, in addition to the vertebrae, includes the ribs and the sternum.

Ribs– coste(Fig. 10) - consist of a long curved bone rib, or costal bone - os coste- and costal cartilage - cartilago costalis. The number of paired ribs corresponds to the number of thoracic vertebrae.

On the bone rib, the vertebral end, body and sternal end are distinguished. At the vertebral end of the rib there is a head - caput costae(1) - and tubercle of the rib - tuberculum costae(2). The head is separated from the tubercle by the neck of the rib collum costae(3). On the head of the rib, two convex facets are visible, separated by either a groove or a ridge - Crista capitis costae(4) - , for articulation with the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae. The tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra.

On the proximal part of the body, the ribs are corpus costae- below the tubercle, a costal angle is distinguished - angulus costae(5). On the body of the rib along its convex caudal edge on the medial side there is a vascular trough - sulcus vascularis-, and along the concave cranial edge on the lateral side - a muscular groove - sulcus muscularis.

Rice. 10 Horse Ribs

1 - head of the rib; 2 - tubercle of the rib; 3 - neck of the rib; 4 - groove of the head of the rib;

5 - costal angle.

The sternal (ventral) end of the bone rib is rough, connected to the costal cartilage. In cattle from 2 to 10 ribs, in pigs from 2 to 7 ribs, the ventral ends of the bony ribs are covered with articular cartilage.

Costal cartilages - cartilago costalis- articular facets are connected to the sternum.

The ribs that connect to the sternum are called sternal, or true – costae sternales, s. verae. Ribs that do not connect to the sternum are called asternal, or false - costae externales, s. spuriae. Their cartilages overlap each other and, together with the last bone rib, form a costal arch - arcus costalis.

Sometimes there are hanging ribs - costa fluctuans-, the ventral ends of which do not reach the costal arch and are enclosed in the muscles of the abdominal walls.

Rice. 11. Ribs

A - ribs of cattle; B - pig ribs; B - dog ribs.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 13 (14) a pair of ribs. The ribs are characterized by long necks, saddle-shaped facets on the costal tubercles, a large but uneven body width: the vertebral end of the rib is 2.5-3 times narrower than the sternal end. The cranial edge of the rib is thick, the caudal edge is sharp. The costal angles are well defined. Costal cartilages 2 to 10 have articular facets at both ends.

At the pig 14-17 a pair of ribs. The ribs are relatively narrow, spirally curved along the longitudinal axis. The facets on the tubercles are flat. The angles of the ribs are clearly defined. Costal cartilages 2 through 7 have articular facets at both ends.

At the horse 18 (19) a pair of ribs. The ribs are narrow, thick, of uniform width. The neck of the rib is short, tubercle with a slightly concave facet.

At the dog 13 (12) a pair of ribs. The ribs are narrow, evenly rounded, characterized by a large curvature (hoop-shaped). The tubercles have convex facets.

breast bone or sternum – sternum(Fig. 12) - closes the ventral wall of the chest, connecting the ventral ends of the sternal ribs. It consists of a handle, body and xiphoid process.

Sternum grip - manubrium sterni (praesternum)(1) - part of the bone lying in front of the place of attachment of the second pair of costal cartilages.

The body of the sternum corpus sterni(2) - consists of 5-7 pieces (segments) - sternebra, - connected, depending on the age of the animals, by cartilaginous or bone tissue. From the sides, at the border of the connection of the segments, it has costal notches or pits - incisurae costales sterni(5) - 5-7 pairs, for articulation with costal cartilages.

xiphoid process - processus xiphoideus(3) - is a continuation of the body and ends with the xiphoid cartilage - cartilago xiphoidea(4).

Rice. 12. Breastbone

A - the chest bone of the horse; B - sternum of cattle; B - sternum of a pig; G - the sternum of the dog.

1 - handle of the sternum; 2 - the body of the sternum; 3 - xiphoid process; 4 - xiphoid cartilage; 5 - costal notches or fossae; 6 - costal cartilages.

Peculiarities:

In cattle in cattle, the handle of the sternum is massive, raised dorsally, connected to the body by a joint. The first pair of costal cartilages is attached to the anterior end of the handle. The body is compressed in the dorsoventral direction, strongly expanded caudally. It has 6 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid cartilage is in the form of a wide thin plate.

At the pig the handle of the sternum is laterally compressed, acts as a wedge in front of the first pair of ribs, and is connected to the body by a joint. The body is shaped like that of cattle. On the body 5 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid cartilage is short, narrow.

At the horse the handle of the sternum is fused with the body and is complemented in front by cartilage, in the form of a rounded plate, which is called a falcon. This cartilage continues backward along the ventral surface of the body and is called the crest of the sternum - crista sterni. The body, like the handle, is compressed from the sides, except for the caudal part, and resembles a pointed-bottomed boat from the side. It has 7 pair of rib cuts. The xiphoid process is absent. The xiphoid cartilage is wide, rounded.

At the dog the handle of the sternum protrudes as a tubercle in front of the first pair of ribs. The body is almost cylindrical or trihedral. The xiphoid cartilage is small and narrow.

The thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum form together chest (thorax). In general, it resembles a cone with a truncated top and an obliquely cut base. The truncated top serves as an entrance to the chest - Apertura thoracis cranialis, limited by the first thoracic vertebra, the first pair of ribs and the handle of the sternum. The base of the cone represents the exit from the chest - apertura thoracis caudalis-, it is limited by the last thoracic vertebra, costal arches and the xiphoid process of the sternum.

The lateral walls of the chest in the cranial part of ungulates are laterally compressed, while in the caudal part they are more rounded (especially in cattle). In dogs, the lateral wall is barrel-shaped convex.

In the region of the vertebral ribs, the chest in all animals is wide. In its anterior section, the spinous processes are very large and form the skeleton of the withers together with the vertebrae.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE – vertebrae lumbales(Fig. 13). A characteristic feature of the lumbar vertebrae is the presence of long transverse costal (transverse) processes (1) lying in the frontal (dorsal) plane. In addition, their heads and fossae are poorly expressed, the spinous processes are lamellar (2), of the same height and width.

Rice. 13. Lumbar vertebrae

A - horses; B - a large horned cat; B - pigs; G - dogs.

1 - transverse costal (transverse) processes; 2 - spinous process; 3 - dorsoventral openings.

Peculiarities:

In cattle 6 lumbar vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are long with ventral ridges, and narrowed (fitted) in the middle. The cranial articular processes have grooved facets, the caudal processes are cylindrical. The transverse processes are long, with uneven edges. Caudal vertebral notches are deep.

At the pig 7 lumbar vertebrae. The bodies are relatively long. The cranial articular processes, like in cattle, have grooved facets, while the caudal processes are cylindrical. The transverse costal processes are short, often curved downwards, and have dorsoventral openings at their base (3). On the last vertebrae they are replaced by notches.

At the horse6 lumbar vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are short. Ventral crests are present only on the first three vertebrae. Their transverse costal processes are lamellar, and in the last 3 vertebrae they are thick, deviated cranially and have articular facets for articulation with each other, the 6th vertebra is connected by caudal facets to the wings of the sacral bone. The articular facets on the cranial and caudal articular processes are flat.

At the dog 7 lumbar vertebrae. The bodies lack ventral crests. The transverse costal processes are directed cranioventrally. There are additional branches.

sacral vertebrae – vertebrae sacrales(Fig. 14). Characterized by the fact that they fuse together into the sacrum - os cacrum, - or sacrum. When the sacral vertebrae grow together, the sacral canal passes between their arches and bodies - canalis sacralis. The boundaries between the bodies of fused vertebrae are visible in the form of transverse lines - linea transversae. The transverse costal processes of the first vertebra form extensive wings - ala sacralis (ala osis sacri)(1) - with ear-shaped surface - facies auricularis(2) - for articulation with the wings of the ilium. Spinous processes form at the confluence

Rice. 14. Sacral vertebrae

A - horses; B - cattle; B - pigs; G - dogs.

1 - wings of the sacrum; 2 - ear-shaped surface; 3 - middle (dorsal) crest; 4 - lateral sacral crests; 5 - intermediate ridges; 6 - dorsal sacral (pelvic) openings; 7 - cape; 8 - cranial articular processes; 9 - caudal articular processes.

middle (dorsal) sacral crest - crista sacralis medianus (crista sacralis dorsalis)(3), transverse processes - lateral sacral crests, or parts - cristae sacrales laterals(4), and the mastoid and articular processes form intermediate ridges - cristae sacrales intermediales(5). The intervertebral foramina are opened by the dorsal and ventral sacral (pelvic) foramens - foramina sacralia dorsalia et ventralia (pelvina) (6). The anterior ventral edge of the first sacral vertebra is called the cape. promontorium(7). The cranial articular processes (8) are present on the arch of the first vertebra, and the caudal articular processes (9) are present on the arch of the last vertebra.

Peculiarities:

In cattle - sacrum formed 5 vertebrae. The pelvic surface is concave and bears a longitudinal vascular groove - sulcus vascularis. The spinous processes merge completely into a crest with a thickened dorsal margin. The wings of the sacral bone are quadrangular in shape, the ear-shaped surface is directed laterodorsally. Cranial articular processes with grooved facets. The ventral sacral foramina are large.

At the pig- the sacrum is formed 4 vertebrae. Spinous processes are absent. Inter-arc openings are wide. The cranial articular processes are grooved. Wings are short and thick. The ear-shaped surface of the wings is directed laterocaudally.

At the horse – 5 sacral vertebrae. The pelvic surface is flat. The spinous processes are fused at the base, the tops are isolated, thickened and often bifurcated. The wings of the sacral bone are triangular in shape and lie in a horizontal plane, have two articular surfaces:

- ear-shaped- for articulation with the ilium, directed dorsally;

- articular- for connection with the transverse costal process of the last lumbar vertebra, directed cranially.

At the dog – 3 sacral vertebrae. The pelvic surface is concave. The spinous processes merge only at the bases, their tops are isolated. The ear-shaped surface of the wings is directed laterally. The cranial articular processes are represented only by articular facets.

TAIL VERTEBRAE – vertebrae caudales, s. coccygeae- (Fig. 15) are characterized by flat-convex heads (1) and pits and the presence of all the main elements of the vertebra only on the first five segments. In the rest of the vertebrae, the spinous processes (3) and arches are reduced and only bodies with small tubercles remain.

Rice. 15. Tail vertebrae

A - horses; B - cattle.

1 - the head of the vertebra; 2 - transverse processes; 3 - spinous process; 4 - hemal processes.

Peculiarities:

In cattle- 18-20 (16-21) tail vertebrae. Their bodies are significantly elongated in length, from 2 to 5-10 they have hemal processes on the ventral side at the cranial end - processus hemalis(4), sometimes closing into hemal arches - arcus hemalis. Transverse processes (2) in the form of thin wide plates bent ventrally. Only cranial articular processes are found.

At the pig tail contains 20-23 vertebra. The first 5-6 vertebrae have bodies compressed in the dorsoventral direction, the rest are cylindrical. Their vertebral arches are displaced caudally, go beyond the vertebral body, have spinous and articular processes. The transverse processes are lamellar, wide and long.

At the horse – 18-20 tail vertebrae. Their bodies are short, massive, cylindrical. The transverse processes are short and thick. Arcs are developed only in the first three vertebrae. Spinous processes are not expressed.

At the dog – 20-23 tail vertebrae. The first 5-6 have all the main parts. The spinous processes are subulate, bent caudally. The cranial and caudal articular processes are well expressed. The mastoid protrude on the cranial articular processes. The transverse processes are well developed, bent caudoventrally and thickened at the end. The vertebral bodies, starting from 4-5, are equipped with hemal processes. The rudiments of the hemal arches (processes) are preserved on all vertebrae and give them, together with the rudiments of the vertebral arches and transverse processes, a characteristic club-shaped shape.

Table 1. The number of vertebrae in mammals of different species

LITERATURE

Main:

1. Anatomy of domestic animals / A.I. Akayevsky, Yu.F. Yudichev, N.V. Mikhailov and others; Ed. A.I. Akayevsky. - 4th ed., corrected. and additional .- M .: Kolos, 1984.-543 p.

2. Anatomy of domestic animals / I.V. Khrustaleva, N.V. Mikhailov, Ya.I. Schneiberg and others; Ed. I.V. Khrustaleva.- M.: Kolos, 1994.-704 p.

3. Anatomy of domestic animals / I.V. Khrustaleva, N.V. Mikhailov, Ya.I. Schneiberg and others; Ed. I.V. Khrustaleva. - 3rd ed. Rev.- M.: Kolos, 2000.-704 p.

4. Klimov A.F. Anatomy of domestic animals. - 4th ed. revised prof. A.I. Akayevsky.-M.: 1955, volume 1.- 576 p.

5. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 1. - 211 p. from ill.

6. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 2.- 194 p. from ill.

7. Popesko P. Atlas of topographic anatomy of farm animals. Ed. 2nd,. ČSSR, Bratislava: Nature, 1978, volume 3. - 205 p. from ill.

8. Udovin G.M. International veterinary anatomical nomenclature in Latin and Russian. [Textbook for students of veterinary universities and faculties]. - M .: 1979, volume 1. - 262 p.

Additional:

1. Akaevsky A.I. Anatomy of domestic animals. Ed. 3rd, rev. and additional M.: Kolos, 1975.- 592 p. from ill.

2. Akaevsky A.I., Lebedev M.I. Anatomy of pets.- M.: Vyssh. school, 1971, part 3. - 376 p.

3. Vokken G.G., Glagolev P.A., Bogolyubsky S.N. Anatomy of pets.- M.: Vyssh. school, 1961, part 1. - 391 p.

4. Gatje V., Pashteya E., Riga I. Atlas of anatomy. volume 1. Osteology. Myology. Bucharest, 1954.- 771 p. (Roman language).

5. Glagolev P.A., Ippolitova V.I. Anatomy of farm animals with the basics of histology and embryology. Ed. I.A. Spiryukhov and V.F. Vrakina. Ed. 4th, revised. and additional M.: Kolos, 1977.-480 p. from ill.

6. Lebedev M.I. Workshop on the anatomy of farm animals. L .: Kolos, 1973. - 288 p. from ill.

7. Malashko V.V. Anatomy of meat-producing animals.- Minsk: Urajay, 1998.

8. Osipov I.P. Atlas of the anatomy of domestic animals. - M .: Kolos, 1977.

Looking at the body of vertebrates, one can clearly see that it has two symmetrical halves - right and left. If the body is anatomically divided into all its constituent parts, then there will be no complete symmetry. However, the bone skeleton of the body of vertebrates and the muscular system associated with it, as well as the peripheral part of the vascular and nervous systems, are basically symmetrical. This circumstance greatly facilitates the study of the structure of the animal's body and makes it possible to apply terms that provide a more accurate and uniform description of the structure and position of various organs and their details in different animals (Fig. 77). An imaginary plane drawn vertically along the middle of the animal's body straight from the mouth to the tip of the tail and cutting it into two symmetrical halves is called the median (median) sagittal plane (a-a). The direction of this or that detail of the described organ towards the median plane is called medial (9), and the direction to the lateral, outer, side is called lateral (10).

Considering the skeleton of an animal and the peripheral parts of the vascular and nervous systems directly connected with it, and partially the muscular one, one can see that the body of the animal consists of several almost identical adjacent parts - segments (segmentum) - segment). Imaginary planes drawn vertically across the animal's body, dividing it into a number of segments close in structure, are called segmental (b-b). The direction from the segmental plane towards the head, or, more precisely, the skull (cranium), is called cranial (c?), and the direction towards the tail (cauda) is called caudal (5). Similar directions on the skull have new terms; the direction towards the extreme anterior point of the skull is called oral (os - mouth, the root of the word og), that is, towards the mouth, or on-

Rice. 77. The planes of the body and the direction of the location of the organs.

Planes: a-a - median sagittal; b-b - segmental; in-in - frontal. N a-boards: / - oral (nasal): 2 - aboral; 3 - cranial; 4 - dorsal; 5 - caudal; 6 - ventral; 7 - proximal; 8 - distal; 9? - medial; 10 - lateral.

Hall (nastis - nose), that is, towards the nose (1). The opposite direction is called aboral (ab - from + os - mouth), that is, in the opposite direction from the mouth (2). An imaginary plane drawn horizontally along the body of the animal (with a horizontally elongated head), that is, perpendicular to the first two planes and parallel to the forehead, is called the frontal (Latin irons - forehead, the root of the word front), that is, parallel to the forehead (in-in). The direction from the frontal plane towards the back (dorsum) is called dorsal (4), and towards the abdomen (venter) - ventral (6). Depending on the position of the organs, various combinations of these terms are possible.

The location of various parts of the organs of different animals is determined by a number of other terms. So, the closer position of one or another part of the organ to the axial skeleton is designated by the term proximal (7) (Latin proximus - nearest), the opposite position is called distal (8) (distalis - distant). To designate the posterior surface of the limbs, the following terms are accepted: volar (palmar), that is, palmar, surface - on the thoracic limb corresponding to the human hand (vola, palma - palm), and plantar, that is, plantar, surface (planta - foot, sole) - on the pelvic limb

In order to be able to navigate the body of the animal, indicate the topography of its individual organs and make it easier to study it, the body of the animal was divided into regions, departments, which received a specific name.

Along with the complication of the structure of the body of vertebrates, the conditional division of it into regions becomes more complicated.

In fish, the head, trunk (the area between the head and tail) and tail (the area located behind the anus) stand out on the stem part of the body.

In terrestrial vertebrates, in connection with the development of their limbs, two parts are already distinguished on the body - the neck and the body (therefore, the body means the part without the neck).

In this regard, the head, neck, trunk and tail stand out on the stem part of the body; on the limbs - belts and free limbs (Fig. 7).

HEAD - caput. It is subdivided into the skull - cranium and the face - fades.

For quick and clear orientation in determining the location of damage on the head or when taking measurements in breeding work, regions are distinguished on the skull - regiones (rg.): On the border between the neck and head, the occipital region - rg. occipitalis; in front of her on top of the parietal region - rg. parietalis; in front of the parietal region, the frontal region is rg. frontalis; on the sides of it the area of the auricle - rg. auricularis; between the eye and ear on the sides of the parietal region, the temporal region - rg. temporalis.

On the face, they distinguish - "the region of the nose - rg. nasalis, on which the back of the nose - dorsum nasi, the tip of the nose - apex nasi and the lateral region - rg. lateralis nasi stand out; on the sides and below the latter is the infraorbital region - rg. infraorbitalis, passing into buccal region - rg. buccalis, on which the maxillary, dental and mandibular areas are distinguished; behind the buccal - zygomatic region - rg. zygomatica; behind the buccal region, where the large flat chewing muscle is located, lies the chewing region - rg. masseterica.

Below the face, between the lower jaws, are the intermaxillary region - rg. intermandibularis and the area of the hyoid bone - rg. subhyoidea. On the anterior part of the face, its apical or apical part, the region of the nostrils is distinguished - rg naris, the region of the upper lip - rg. labialis superior. In the region of the nostrils and upper lip, there may be a nasal or nasolabial mirror. The pigs have a snout here. There is also an area of the lower lip - rg. labialis inferior and chin area - rg. mental is.

Around the eye - the orbital region - rg. orbitalis, on which the region of the lower eyelid is distinguished - rg. palpebral superios

Rice. 7. Areas of the cow's body

NECK - collum (cervix). It borders on the occipital region, on the sides of which lie: the region of the parotid gland - rg. paratidea, located below the auricle, passing from above into the behind-the-ear region - rg. retroauricularis, and from below - into the pharyngeal - rg. pharyngea; laryngeal region - rg. laryngea lies below behind the pharyngeal region. Along the lower side of the neck from the laryngeal region back to the body stretches the tracheal region - rg. trachealis. Along the neck from the sides of the tracheal region is the brachiocephalic muscle, the region of which is called the region of the brachiocephalic muscle - rg. brachiocephalica. Along the lower edge of this area stretches the jugular groove - sulcus jugularis, in which lies the external jugular vein, from which blood is usually taken from large animals. Below this gutter, the sternocephalic region is rg. sternocephalica; closer to the scapula, in the upper part it is called the prescapular region - rg. prescapularis. The back ventral part of the neck - dewlap - palear.

Above the region of the brachiocephalic muscle is the lateral cervical region, located in the upper part of the neck, - rg. colli lateralis, it still distinguishes the outer edge - margo nuchalis or the dorsal edge of the neck - margo colli dorsalis.

BODY - truncus. It distinguishes the dorsal-thoracic, lumbar-abdominal and sacro-gluteal regions.

The dorsal-thoracic region is a continuation of the bulge and upper regions of the neck, which consists of two parts: in front of the withers - rg. interscapularis and behind the dorsal region - rg. dorsalis.

On the sides and below from the back there is an extensive lateral chest region, from below passing in front of the presternal region - rg. presternalis, bordering on the tracheal, and behind - in the sternal - rg. sternalis.

The lateral thoracic region is also divided into two parts: the anterior part, where the shoulder girdle (scapula) lies on the chest, and the shoulder, which in many animals goes to the level of the sternal region. Caudal part of the thoracic region - costal - rg. cos-talis - reaches the edge of the chest, called the costal arch.

Lumbar-abdominal. The upper part of this department is the lumbar region - rg. The iumbalis (lower back) is an extension of the back. Below the waist - a vast abdominal region, or simply the belly (belly) - abdomen.

By two transverse (segmental) planes, drawn at the level of the most convex part of the costal arch and at the level of the maklok, the abdominal region is divided into three sections: the anterior region, in front and below, running along the edges of the costal arches (right and left) and posteriorly bounded by a transverse plane drawn along the edge of the convex part of the costal arch. This area is called the area of the xiphoid cartilage - rg. xiphoidea. The middle lateral region is located between the two transverse planes described above. Here are the right and left iliac regions - rg. iliacea. In this area, a hungry fossa (periolumbar fossa) fossa paralumbalis is distinguished, located under the lower edge of the lower back in front of the maklok, and the umbilical region - rg. umbilicalis - a site located in the middle region behind the region of the xiphoid cartilage (in this region the umbilical cord is located in newborns).

On the sides and behind the iliac region lie the right and left inguinal regions - rg. inguinalis, from below, as a continuation of the umbilical region, there is a pubic region - rg. publica.

Sacro-buttock department. In the middle part of this department, above and behind the lumbar region lies the sacral region - rg. sacralis, which passes into the root of the tail - radix caudae. On the sides of it is the gluteal region - rg. glutea, its lower border goes along the line passing from the maklok through the hip joint to the ischial tuberosity.

Gluteal region (buttocks) - rg. glutea (nates) is located in place of the pelvic girdle. Together with the sacral section, the paired gluteal region forms a croup in ungulate animals. The back side of the croup under the tail is called the anal region - rg. analis, here is the anus - the anus. Under the anal region from the anus to the labia in females and the scrotum in males lies the area perineum, or perineum, - rg perineals (perineum).

From the lower border of the gluteal region to the knee joint on the pelvic limb are the thigh - femur and the area of the patella - rg. patellaris, the knee fold rises up from it to the stomach. From the knee to the tarsal joint lies the lower leg - crus, from which the limb ends with a link called the foot - pes, or hind leg.

On the thoracic limb, the region of the shoulder girdle is distinguished - rg. scapularis (to the level of the shoulder joint) and the shoulder area - rg. brachials. These two areas are adjacent to the thoracic region. On the area of the shoulder girdle, another area of \u200b\u200bthe scapular cartilage is isolated - rg. suprascapularis, supraspinous - rg. supraspinata and infraspinal region - rg. infraspinata, located along the scapula in front of and behind the spine of the scapula.

From the shoulder joint to the elbow, there is a shoulder - brachium, behind which the edge of the triceps muscle, or the triceps edge, margo tricepitalis, is clearly visible. Between the elbow and wrist joints lies the forearm - antebrachium, below it is the hand - manus, or front paw.

Terms indicating the location and direction of parts of an animal's body. To clarify the location on the body of an organ or its part, the entire body is conditionally dissected by three mutually perpendicular planes drawn along the body, across and horizontally (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Planes and directions in the body

The vertical plane that cuts the body longitudinally from head to tail is called the sagittal plane - planum sagittate. If the plane passes along the body, dividing it into right and left symmetrical halves, then this is the middle sagittal plane - planum medianum. All other sagittal planes drawn parallel to the median sagittal plane are called lateral sagittal planes - plana of the sagittal plane, directed towards the median plane is called medial; the opposite (outer) area is called lateral, it is directed to the side. So, the outer surface of the rib will be lateral, and the one that is visible from the inner surface of the chest, i.e., towards the median sagittal plane, will be medial. The outer lateral surface of the limb is lateral, while the inner one, directed towards the median plane, is medial.

It is also possible to dissect the body with longitudinal planes, but in animals they are located horizontally on the earth's surface. They will run perpendicular to the sagittal. Such planes are called dorsal (frontal). These planes can be used to cut off the dorsal surface of the tetrapod body from the ventral surface. And everything that is directed to the back received the term "dorsal" (dorsal). (In animals it is upper, in humans it is posterior.) Everything that is directed to the abdominal surface has received the term "ventral" (abdominal). (In animals it is lower, in humans it is anterior.) These terms apply to all parts of the body, except for the hand and foot.

The third planes along which you can mentally dissect the body are transverse (segmental). They run vertically, across the body, perpendicular to the longitudinal planes, cutting it into separate sections - segments, or metameres. In relation to each other, these segments can be located towards the head (skull) - cranially (from Latin cranium - skull). (In animals it is forward, in humans it is up.) Or they are located towards the tail - caudally (from Latin cauda - tail). (In quadrupeds it is back, in humans it is down.)

On the head, directions are indicated towards the nose - rostral (from Latin rostrum - proboscis).

These terms can be combined. For example, if it is necessary to say that the organ is located towards the tail and towards the back, then they use a complex term - caudodorsally. Both medical and veterinarian will understand you. If we are talking about the ventrolateral location of the organ, this means that it is located on the ventral side and outside, on the side (in the animal on the side - from below, and in humans on the side - in front).

In the region of the autopodia of the extremities (on the hand and foot), the back of the hand or the back of the foot are distinguished - dorsum manus and dorsum pedis, which serve as a continuation of the cranial surfaces of the forearm and lower leg. Opposite the dorsal on the hand are palmar (from lat. palma manus - palm), on the foot - plantar (from lat. planta pedis - sole of the foot) surfaces. They are called anti-back. In the region of the stylo- and zeugopodium, the anterior surface is called cranial, the opposite is called caudal. The terms "lateral" and "medial" are retained on the limbs.

All areas on the free limb in relation to their longitudinal axis can be closer to the body - proximally or further from it - distally. Thus, the hoof is located more distally than the elbow joint, which is located proximal to the hoof.

The following planes are mentally drawn in the body of the animal (Fig. 10): longitudinal - sagittal and frontal and transverse - segmental.

Sagittal planes cut the animal's body from top to bottom, into right and left parts, and only one of them - the median sagittal plane - divides the animal's body into equal and symmetrical - right and left - halves; lateral sagittal planes divide the body of the animal into unequal and asymmetrical parts.

The frontal planes cut the body into upper, or dorsal, and lower, or abdominal, parts.

Segmental planes are drawn in the transverse direction and divide the body into transverse segments, or segments.

To further clarify the position of the organ and the direction of its parts (surfaces, edges, corners, etc.), the following topographic terms are used in anatomy: cranial - directed forward, towards the skull; caudal - directed towards the tail; lateral - directed to the side of the median sagittal plane; medial, directed back towards the median sagittal plane; dorsal - directed upwards in animals, towards the back; ventral - facing animals down, towards the abdomen.

Directions are indicated on the limbs: proximal - towards the body and distal - in the direction from the body.

On the thoracic and pelvic limbs, instead of the anterior surface facing forward, the term dorsal, or back, is used, for the opposite surface facing backwards - volar, or anti-back, on the thoracic limb, and plantar, or anti-back, on the pelvic limb.

BODY AREAS OF THE ANIMAL

In the body of the animal, the stem part and limbs are isolated (Fig. I). The stem part is divided into: head, neck, torso and tail. On the head, the brain and facial sections are distinguished. In the brain section, the following areas are considered: occipital, parietal, frontal, auricle, eyelids, temporal, parotid gland, laryngeal.

The facial section is divided into areas: nasal, nostril, infraorbital, upper lip, lower lip, chin, buccal, chewing muscle, submandibular.

The neck is subdivided into the nuchal region, the region of the brachiocephalic muscle, the tracheal region and the lower region of the neck.

The trunk includes the dorsal-thoracic, lumbo-abdominal and sacro-gluteal regions. The thoracic region is divided into the back and chest. The back is divided into the area of the withers and the dorsal area. On the chest, the right and left lateral thoracic regions are distinguished, as well as unpaired sternal and presternal regions.

The lumbar-abdominal region consists of the lumbar region, or lower back. On the abdomen, there are: the regions of the left and right hypochondrium, the region of the xiphoid cartilage, the right and left iliac regions, the right and left inguinal regions, the umbilical and pubic regions.

The sacro-gluteal region is divided into the sacral and gluteal regions.

Rice. 11. Areas of the body of the cow:

Brain section of the head. Regions: 1 - occipital; 2 - parietal; 3 - frontal; 4 - auricle; 5 - century; 6 - temporal; 7 - parotid gland; 8 - guttural.

The facial region of the head. Areas: a - nasal; 10 - nostrils; 11 - infraorbital; 12 - upper lip; is - lower lip; 14 - chin; 15 - buccal; 16 - chewing muscle; 17 - submandibular.

Neck. Areas: 18 - vynaya; 19 - brachiocephalic muscle; 20 - tracheal; 21 - lower region of the neck.

Dorsal-thoracic region. Areas: 22 - withers; 23 - dorsal; 24 - lateral chest; 25 - sternum; 26 - presternal.

Lumbar-abdominal. Areas: 27 - lumbar (lumbar); 28 - stomach.

Sacro-buttock department. Areas: 29 - sacral; 30 - gluteal. Thoracic limb. Regions: 31 - shoulder girdle, or scapula; 32 - shoulder; 33 - forearm; 34 - wrist; 35 - metacarpus; 36 - the first phalanx; 37 and 38 - the second and third phalanxes. Joints: 39 - shoulder; 40 - elbow; 41 - carpal; 42 - putovy (first phalanx); 43 - coronal (second phalanx); 44 - hoofed (third phalanx). Pelvic limb. Areas: 45 - pelvic girdle; 46 - groats; 47 - hips; 48 - knee cup; 49 - lower leg; 50 - tarsus; 51 - metatarsus; 52 - the first phalanx (outside the hooves); 53 - second phalanx; 54 - third phalanx. Joints: 55 - hip; 56 - knee; 57 - tarsal (hock); 58 - putovy (first phalanx); 59 - coronal (second phalanx); 60 - hoofed (third phalanx).

As part of the thoracic limb, the region of the shoulder girdle, or scapula, associated with the body, and the free thoracic limb are considered. The free thoracic limb is subdivided into the areas of the shoulder, forearm, wrist, metacarpus, first phalanx of the fingers, second phalanx of the fingers and third phalanx

The following planes are mentally drawn in the body of the animal (Fig. 10): longitudinal - sagittal and frontal and transverse - segmental.

The frontal planes cut the body into upper, or dorsal, and lower, or abdominal, parts.

Segmental planes are drawn in the transverse direction and divide the body into transverse segments, or segments.

Directions are indicated on the limbs: proximal - towards the body and distal - in the direction from the body.

BODY AREAS OF THE ANIMAL

The facial section is divided into areas: nasal, nostril, infraorbital, upper lip, lower lip, chin, buccal, chewing muscle, submandibular.

The neck is subdivided into the nuchal region, the region of the brachiocephalic muscle, the tracheal region and the lower region of the neck.

The sacro-gluteal region is divided into the sacral and gluteal regions.

Rice. 11. Areas of the body of the cow:

Brain section of the head. Regions: 1 - occipital; 2 - parietal; 3 - frontal; 4 - auricle; 5 - century; 6 - temporal; 7 - parotid gland; 8 - guttural.

The facial region of the head. Areas: a - nasal; 10 - nostrils; 11 - infraorbital; 12 - upper lip; is - lower lip; 14 - chin; 15 - buccal; 16 - chewing muscle; 17 - submandibular.

Neck. Areas: 18 - vynaya; 19 - brachiocephalic muscle; 20 - tracheal; 21 - lower region of the neck.

Dorsal-thoracic region. Areas: 22 - withers; 23 - dorsal; 24 - lateral chest; 25 - sternum; 26 - presternal.

Lumbar-abdominal. Areas: 27 - lumbar (lumbar); 28 - stomach.