The Uzbeks are the nobles of the Turkic peoples, and the Sarts are the entrepreneurs of Central Asia (Part 2): Rustamjon Abdullayev. Russia as the legal successor of the Golden Horde How long did the Golden Horde last
IA REX publishes an article by an expert on international information, foreign policy and economic relations of Russia with neighboring countries Rustamjon Abdullayev "Uzbeks are the nobles of the Turkic peoples, and the Sarts are entrepreneurs of Central Asia" in three parts.
What language was the state language of the Golden Horde under Uzbek Khan and what status did the Uzbeks have in this state?
Answering the first question, eaten into the heading of this section of the article, based on literary sources, it can be said with confidence that the state language in the Golden Horde under Uzbek Khan was the Turkic-Old Uzbek language. This is the one Old Uzbek language:
- which in those days, due to the fact that this language was also in another state - Ulus Chigatai, on whose territory part of Khorezm, Samarkand, Bukhara and other cities of Maverannahr or Turkestan were located, where Turkic clans and tribes mainly lived, was a state language language;
- which many historians mistakenly called and call " Chigatai language", without distinguishing the state language of the Chigatai Ulus, named after the second son of the Mongol emperor Genghis Khan, from the Mongolian language of the Mongols themselves, who in one way or another headed this ulus itself.
And answering the second question, displayed in the title of this section, first I want to dwell on the etymology, i.e. about the origin of the word "Uzbek". Some historians, citing a French orientalist Pelliot fields they write that the name Uzbek (Özbäg) means "owner of himself" (maître de sa personne). And the concept of bek (run, beat, buy) is interpreted as the Turkic word bəy - ruler, prince, master; a synonym for the Arabic concept of emir or amir ('amir- lord, leader). But the term bek" Initially, in tribal relations among the ancient Turks, they designated the head of the clan.
Bek led the tribal militia as part of a general tribal army, headed by a khan (a Turkic and Mongol title). This concept later acquired other meanings, such as: the title of the nobility in the countries of the Near and Middle East, as well as the landowner among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and Transcaucasia in the Middle Ages; hereditary ruler in Tunisia in the 18th-20th centuries; a form of respectful address in Turkey, Azerbaijan and modern Uzbekistan.
However, based on the above analysis of the term “Uzbek” (“o’zbek”), which consists of two words “uz” and “bek”, I believe that the meaning of this word will become clear and understandable to our readers if we give a good example here.
So, as an example, if we translate such sentences written in Uzbek using these words, which are fully consistent with the old Uzbek "Chigatai language", into Russian, such as: "Mening o'z begim bor" ("Mening o'z begim bor ”) and “U ўz begimdir” (“U o'z begimdir”), then in Russian they will sound respectively: “I have my own bek” and “He is my bek”. In this sentence, the first part of the word "Uzbek" - "ўz" (uz), is translated into Russian as "his" and "mine". And the second part of this word - "beg", is simply written as its above variety: instead of "beg", in the form - "bek", which corresponds to the pronunciation of this word in the Uzbek language as part of translated sentences. Means both literal and meaningful translation of the word "Uzbek" from the given examples of composing sentences in the Uzbek language, it will be nothing but "your back" and "my bek" respectively. And they, in turn, are equivalent to such expressions as: “my master” and “my master”; “my prince” and “my prince”, etc.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that Soviet historians, academicians of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR B.D. Grekov and A.Yu. history, archeology and ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Tajik SSR, wrote:
« Is there any connection between the terms "Uzbeks", pl. "Uzbekian" = "Uzbek", "Uzbek" and "Uzbek", "Uzbek"? According to A. A. Semenov, there is none. The first name is accidental and in the sources of the XV century. does not occur. The term "Uzbek", according to A. A. Semenov, was born in the environment of Ak-Orda, existed there and has neither direct nor indirect relation to the term "Uzbeks". It is not yet clear when it originated.
It seems to us that this point of view is not justified by historical facts and cannot refute the hypothesis of a direct connection between these two names. After all, in fact, contemporaries called the troops of Uzbek Khan - "Uzbekians" ( allocated - A.R.), and all his state is the “state of Uzbek”. It is only necessary to carefully read the sources in order to imagine what a huge role the left wing played in the Ulus-Juchi army. The Turkic-Mongolian nomads of the Ak-Orda were elite cavalry warriors. They, apparently, were the main part of the Golden Horde army. At first they were called "Uzbeks", "Uzbeks" ( allocated - A.R.) .
Therefore, if we take into account that, on the one hand, Uzbek Khan was well aware of the meaning of his name, since other Turkic rulers had such a name before him. And on the other hand, it gave him pleasure to call his servicemen by their own names - my beks, and the subjects were pleased to call them - with their khans, emirs and beks, it is not difficult to guess that in his state UZBEKS not the entire population was named. Although this population was called according to the generally recognized tradition Uzbek ulus. Since the entire population consisted not only of the military estate, but also of representatives of various Turkic, small Mongolian and other clans and tribes, as well as artisans, cattle breeders, farmers, etc., engaged in economic affairs necessary for the entire ulus.
The deeply competent opinions of such Soviet historians as B.D. Grekov and A.Yu. At that time there were “different levels in the ruling aristocratic class of nomads” and “military aristocracy”, give me full reason to assert the following.
Based on the relevant rules, taking into account the Turkic origin of Jochi Khan, only those subjects of Uzbek Khan who belonged to the military class from the Turkic clans and tribes of the Golden Horde were called UZBEKS. Namely, the monarch himself, the military aristocracy: khans, emirs, bogodurs and beks, as well as ordinary soldiers in state military service, on a paid basis.
Therefore, looking ahead, we can say with confidence that it was for this reason that even after the great Uzbek Khan, khans, emirs, beks, bagodurs and ordinary soldiers of the Golden Horde continued to be called Uzbeks. For example, not only the weight of the Ulus was called Uzbek, but also the Khan of the Golden Horde Urus Khan himself.
So, the concept of such a military class, which, under Uzbek Khan and after him in the Golden Horde and its other uluses, was called Uzbeks, in its content almost completely corresponds to such a concept as, say, samurai the Japanese or nobility , introduced in Russia only inXVIIcentury.
I believe that it is precisely for this reason that among the part of the Turkic clans and tribes of the state of Uzbek Khan itself and even beyond it, which was not mobilized for military service, it was not only very honorable and prestigious to become an Uzbek (samurai, nobleman), but also profitable. For if individual hundreds, thousands and ten-thousandth (tumeni) detachments, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another bek, then the families of Uzbek soldiers, who together with him had the right [in peacetime] to deal with their household, did not were left aside. And the khan of the Golden Horde, as the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and pastoralists into the possession of the beks through the emirs, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties for this. The most important duty, of course, was military service. Since each bek was obliged, at the first request of the emirs (who were in the appropriate subordination to the khan himself) and within the time period set by him, to put up at the points of their collection, the battlefield or other military events, the established number of soldiers, for the prosperous life and economic activities of the families whom he followed. And the bek himself in his inheritance could exploit the labor of farmers and pastoralists, presenting them, for rent, his lands, and cattle for grazing, or involving them directly in work on his farm. And small beks served large beks - feudal lords, and those emirs ...
However, neither Uzbek Khan nor his state was eternal: he died in 1341, and the Golden Horde disintegrated and completely ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century. Therefore, the following question arises, the fifth in a row.
How was the fate of the Uzbeks after the Uzbek Khan and the complete collapse of the Golden Horde, and when was the first Uzbek state created?
The answer to the question in the heading of the section, one way or another, is connected with the Ulus or the state of Chagatai (Chig'atoy) - the second son of Genghis Khan, to whom he granted many territories of modern Central Asia, and, first of all, my Motherland - the Republic of Uzbekistan. Many literary sources tell about the history of Ulus Chagatai. Therefore, readers on questions of interest to them can refer to this literature. Considering this opportunity for readers, I will dwell on this issue very briefly, drawing their attention only to such issues that were not considered in them and were not fully consecrated.
5.1. As I said above, the capture by Genghis Khan of Maverannahr, Khorezm, etc., as well as the creation of the state of his second son Chagatai there, had no effect on the language and culture of the indigenous population of these territories - Turkic clans and tribes (natives). On the contrary, the Turkic-Old Uzbek language, having become the state language in the Ulus of Chagatai and for this reason having gone down in history under the name “Chagatai language”, served, as it happened more than once in the history of our peoples, to the Turkization of the conquerors themselves - the Mongols. And just as it happened before, later and is still happening, with Iranian, Arab and other representatives of the countries that once occupied our paradise lands, and then settled, the descendants of whom continue to live with us to this day. As at home, as it should be.
However, the Ulus of Chagatai, like other uluses of the sons of Genghis Khan and his entire Mongol empire, fell apart. As a result of this, two states such as Maverannahr and Mogolistan were formed. In the first of them - Mavraunnahr, shortly after its formation, when Togluk-Timur ruled this country, the great commander Amir Temur (Tamirlan) won power in it, who subsequently put an end to the power of the Chagaytay. About him, as I believe, our readers are well aware of a lot, and if not, then his history can be found from those sources that are given in the bibliography.
Therefore, here I want to draw their attention to the second state that appeared after the collapse of the Ulus of Jochi - to Mogolistan(Mughal ulus, Jete ulus and Mamlakat-i Mogolistan). On the state, the name of which, not correctly recorded as Moghulistan and at the suggestion of some historians, many know or perceive as if it were the state of the Mongols or even Mongolia. Since this state, although on its throne, after its creation in 1347, the Chingezid Togluk-Timur was found and planted from somewhere - it was never Mongolia, just as its population was not Mongols either. And all this population, except for the Turkicized duclats (Duglats), consisted of Turkic tribes, such as: Kangly, Kireits, Arlats, Uighurs, etc., who earlier - before the collapse of the Chagatai Ulus, lived in it and spoke the same one half of its territory. And, in other dialects of the Turkic language and, first of all, in the Uighur language, in the other half. For when it used to be part of the Chigatai Ulus, in those territories where they spoke the old Uzbek or "Chigatai language", were located, not to mention Issyk-Kul, Talas, Ili, the upper reaches of the Chu and Ebinor, such famous our cities like: Andijan, Namangan, Ferghana, Osh, Jalal-Abad, Suzak, Uzgen, Khujand, etc.
And mentioning them, the great poet, and later the famous padish of India, Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur, who before that in 1494-1504 also held the post of the ruler of Ferghana, in his book “Babur-name” (1526-1530) wrote that:
« The inhabitants of Andijan are all Turks; there is no person in the city and in the bazaar who does not know Turkic. The dialect of the people is similar to the literary one; writings of Mir Alisher Navoi, although he grew up and was brought up in Herat, [are written] in this language» .
That is why when the British or other Europeans call the state created in India by Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur, who wrote his book "Babur-name" in his native Turkic-Old Uzbek language (which for this reason we consider among the great Uzbek poets), they call " the state of the great Moghuls" - this must be understood on the basis of the explanations given above. Because there is no evidence that the subjects of Mogolistan were Turkified Mongols, as some researchers claim, does not exist. And the statement of V. Bartold that the alleged language of the Moghuls of their Great Empire (India) was Mongolian is refuted by the very language of the founder of this empire, our great poet Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur, who wrote his book “Babur-name” in the old Uzbek language, which modern Uzbeks understand without difficulty.
5.2. Above, in the third section of the article, speaking about the mother of Mengu-Timur Kuchu-Khatun, I indicated that she was from a Turkic family OIRAT. Therefore, here I want to dwell on another historical fact that is associated with this genus. For OIRAT- this is the Turkic clan, part of which mixed with those 4 thousand warriors from the Mongol clans that Genghis Khan handed over for Ulus Jochi. Therefore, they, not accepting the Muslim faith, STAYED in that territory of the Golden Horde, from which Uzbek Khan, by the end of his reign, returned the demobilized soldiers and other members of his Muslim ulus back to their homeland, to Maverannahr and Khorezm, which then belonged to the Ulus of Jochi. And among these Uzbeks there was another part OIRAT ov - Muslims who returned home to their homeland. Therefore, those who remain there OIRAT s and were named after KOLMOK (QOLMOQ), since the word “stay” [there, in a foreign land], both in Old Uzbek or Chigatai, and in modern Uzbek, is translated in the same way - KOLMOK(qolmoq). And this historical fact is written on pages 225-226 of the historical book of the great Mirzo Ulugbek "Turt ulus tarihi" ("History of four uluses"). If this story, presented in Ulugbek's book, were not reliable, then not only Uzbek, but also foreign historians would not include the Kalmyks themselves in the list of 92 Uzbek tribes.
And the descendants of that part of the Turkic tribe OIRAT , who mixed with those 4 thousand Mongols transferred by Genghis Khan to Ulus Jochi, remained on the territory of the center of the Golden Horde, and in appearance becoming similar to the Mongols, took on their appearance and became Mongoloids, still live there. Having retained only the name of their kind, like many other peoples, but forgetting: why and by whom they were named KOLMOK ami? But, still calling themselves, albeit a little differently, but still - KALMYKs, who are now citizens of the Russian Federation from Republic of Kalmykia. I believe that the capital of this republic, for a similar reason, is called a phrase of Turkic origin, namely Elista (El ista ), that is, from the words: email - people and ista - look for, which means, let's say: "look for your people" ...
I told the history of the Kalmyks here not for the sake of a red word, but because in the "Autobiography of Tamerlane" and the first part of the book "The Code of Timur", it is not only about those Uzbeks who, having remained in the Golden Horde, continued their military service. But also about those of them who, after demobilization from the army of Uzbek Khan, returned to their homeland - to Maverannahr, among whom were representatives of the tribe OIRAT . And also a certain number of non-Muslims, incl. even a small number of Kalmyks.
5.3. It turns out Amir Temur (Tamerlane) when in his book he told that he, using a military trick, defeated the Uzbeks, had in mind such a circumstance, because of which the Uzbeks, frightened by his imaginary troops, under the cover of night scattered leaving the fortresses of Maverannahr. But only the local population can scatter on some territory inhabited by people during a military conflict. So, when he spoke about the Uzbeks in his book and autobiography, by them he meant precisely those of them whom I attributed to their demobilized and for this reason, returned to their homeland and living there - Maverannahr, part.
So when in the text of "Temerlane's Autobiography" and "Timur's Code" we are talking about some community of Uzbeks, the editors and translators in the notes to these books of his mistakenly write that: "We are talking about nomadic, that is, Dashtikipchak Uzbeks: about the Golden Horde garrisons located in the fortified cities of Maverannahr”. For nowhere is there an answer to the question: where did they come from, even if they were at the disposal of Ilyas Khan, who at that time was temporarily acting as his father, Khan Ulus Chigatai and the state of Mogolistan Tugluk Temur? And this once again proves the validity of the stated fact of the return of [demobilized] Uzbeks to Maverannahr and Khorezm, which is stated in the book of Ulugbek.
However, I believe that Amir Temur's hostile attitude towards the demobilized military class of the Golden Horde - the Uzbeks, consisted not only in their bad behavior, which religious figures complained about, but also in the fact that he himself was from a Turkic tribe BARLAS. And, out of 40 tribes subordinate to him, in addition to his own tribe, he trusted only such 11 tribes as: Tarkhan, Argyn, Jalair, Tulkich, Duldai, Mogul, Suldus, Tugai, Kipchak, Arlat and Tatars. Moreover, noting such a status of these persons with an imprint of his tamga (brand) and for their loyalty and assistance during his ascension to the throne of Maverannahr.
Although one of the wives of Amir Temur named Ak Sufi was from the Turkic tribe KUNGRAT. However, as can be seen from the above list of 12 Turkic tribes, on which Amir Temur relied in his great deeds, in their composition the glorious Turkic tribe KUNGRAT, which formed the backbone of the Uluses of the Golden Horde, no. Since its representatives continued to serve their still Great State - the Ulus of Uzbeks, entering into military conflicts with him - Amir Temur, like Uzbeks (nobles) until the complete collapse of the Golden Horde. In addition, from 1359 to 1388 in Khorezm (Khanate of Khiva), the dynasty of khans from this tribe was in power, until it was conquered by Amir Temur in 1388.
It was for such reasons that he apparently appointed only people from the indicated 12 Turkic tribes to the positions of supreme emirs and, first of all, from his own tribe - BARLAS, granting them even certain territories: Badakhshan, border regions and districts. In addition, he appointed people from the same tribe of his own to other high positions of emirs and thousanders. BARLAS, perhaps planning for the future, to turn them into the military class of their empire, like the Uzbeks ...
But here the question may arise: why Amir Temur, not distinguishing demobilized and serving in the Golden Horde Uzbeks by their tribal characteristics or composition, called them all in his books exclusively by Uzbeks?
The answer to this question is tritely simple. Uzbek Khan, when creating his military class called "Uzbeks", which corresponded not only to his name, the name of his ulus (Golden Horde), but also to his plans, took into account the experience of creating the Mongol army from Genghis Khan, who mixed tenants, centurions, thousanders and ten-thousanders (tumenei), clans and tribes of the Mongols. For when creating the military estate of his armed forces called "Uzbeks", he also mixed all the Turkic clans and tribes called upon to serve him so that they could not destroy the units of his army on the basis of tribal disagreements and conflicts, which were very characteristic of that era .
That heroic era, when the conquest of foreign countries was a common thing for the rulers of powerful states, demonstrating their superiority over the conquered khans, princes, kings and kings: the more of them, the better. For it was also one of the ways of their own enrichment and improvement of the well-being of their subjects at the expense of conquered and plundered states and peoples. Therefore, we, their descendants, who are in a completely different era and with different values of life, have no right to condemn them: we can only be proud of them if they are the ancestors of the peoples to which we belong or they are with these peoples, one way or another, were connected...
However, among the khans of the Golden Horde there were also such as Tokhtamysh. Not knowing his true origin, he tried to restore the Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde) of the time of Genghis Khan, thinking, like many current guardians of his family, who consider themselves Genghisides, not knowing that they have nothing to do with this greatest personality in the history of mankind. Like that Khan of the Golden Horde - Tokhatamysh, who conquered many Russian lands and cities. Including even Moscow, using deceit and cunning for this, subsequently destroying even those who, believing in him, opened the gates of this majestic Russian city and greeted him with bread and salt. And then they plundered Moscow, together with its population, and set a devastating fire in it.
But among the Turkic rulers of Maverannahr there was such a great commander, in no way inferior to Genghis Khan, as Amir Temur - who called himself both the Sultan of Turan and the Emir of Turkestan, who was destined not only to liberate Russia from the invasion of Tokhtamysh Khan, but also to conquer and completely stop the existence of the Golden Horde. And this subsequently, one way or another, contributed to the birth from the fragments of the Golden Horde - Turkic warrior tribes who consider themselves Uzbeks (samurai, nobles), purely Uzbek states of the 15th and 16th centuries, headed by khans from the Sheiban dynasty - the fifth son of Jochi Khan, conquered even the states of the dynasty of Amir Temur himself. The Timurids, who in the 16th century were driven out of Maverannakhr by the Uzbeks, as a result of which they were forced to be content with the conquest of India and the territory of modern Afghanistan, like the great padishah of India, the poet and writer Babur.
But Amir Temur himself is not only the liberator of the Russian lands from Tokhtamysh, but also of Europe, from the invasion of the Ottoman Empire during the time of Sultan Bayezid I at the request of the European monarchs themselves ...
For these reasons, the leadership of modern Uzbekistan is precisely the legendary Amir Temur not famous Uzbek Khan, who gave his name to our people and state, was chosen as a historical personal symbol of our great past, which I wrote about before.
But the founder of the power of the Uzbeks, who entered the historical arena as ethnos , was a prince from the Sheiban dynasty Abu-l-Khair (1412-1468) - the first khan of the centralized "state of nomadic Uzbeks". And this state went down in history as UZBEK KHANATE, which his first khan Abu-l-khair ruled for 40 years from 1428 to 1468.
It was during the creation of this state that the term "Uzbeks" was replaced by the term "Uzbek", which also became a collective name for a whole group of Turkic tribes, the leaders of which Prince Abu-l-Khair was elected as the khan of the first Uzbek state. And among the 24 tribes that supported the first steps of the young and talented prince Abu-l-Khair, uniting for the first time under the flag of the Uzbek Khanate in 1428, which formed the Uzbek ethnic group, are:
bayly, barak, jat, dope, imchi, yidzhan, karluk, keneges, kiyat, KUNGRAT, kurlaut, kushchi, mangkyt, ming, naiman, taimas, tangut, tubai, fog, ugrish-naiman, uigur, uishun, utarchi and hitai.
And all this gives full grounds to assert that the Uzbeks first appeared on the historical map of the world as an independent ethnic group, not in 1924, when the Uzbek SSR was created as part of the USSR, but in 1428, i.e. 596 years before. Moreover, unlike others, they appeared on the historical stage as an ethnic group that emerged from the military class or the nobles of the Turkic tribes of the Golden Horde, during the creation of the first centralized "state of nomadic Uzbeks" called the UZBEK KHANATE. And in 1924 they were only legally fixed as the titular nation of the Uzbek SSR.
The validity of this new approach to the ethnogenesis of the Uzbeks is confirmed by the presence of analogues of such a historical process in world practice, shown by the example of the transformation of military estates, such as the Rajputs, who are direct descendants of the ancient Aryans from India and the Amhara from Ethiopia, which are given in the article by S. Ya. Kozlov “The ways of ethnogenesis are inscrutable. From class to ethnos through language, way of life, customs and religion.
Further, without delving into the details of the development of the Uzbek states, after Muhammad Shaybani Khan (1451-1510) came to power, who conquered Maverannahr in 1499, the state of the Timurids, fragmented after the death of Amir Temur, as well as the history of the Sheibanids who headed them, I considered it necessary to note only following.
In the field of science, Uzbeks include such brilliant Russian scientists as Mendeleev, Mechnikov, Pavlov, Michurin, Timiryazov, Radishchev, Kantemirovs and Karamzin. And among the Russian writers, the Uzbeks include Gogol, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Derzhavin, Gorky, Aksakov, Chaadaev, Akhmatova and Bulgakov. Famous art luminaries Pavlova, Ulanov and Spesivtseva, artists Yermolova and Karatygin, artist Shishkin, composers Skryabin and Taneyev also come from Uzbeks. And Kuzma Minin, before his baptism, bore the Uzbek surname Minnibaev. Governors Prince Yuri Meshchersky and boyar Andrei Cherkizov, who fell on the Kulikovo field, associates of Peter the Great, General Admiral F. Apraksin, Field Marshal S. Apraksin were also Uzbeks by origin. Moreover, even Kutuzov, Ushakov and Tukhachevsky have an Uzbek origin.
This tradition of building kinship relations and ties with Russians and other peoples of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and other countries of the former USSR and Europe, which are called assimilation processes, continues to this day at various levels. Both in these countries themselves and, first of all, in Russia, and in Uzbekistan. So, the Uzbeks and Russians are fraternal peoples, which cannot be said about the Tajiks ...
Despite this, our people have the same kindred relations and ties that they build with other peoples, built, and build, both with Tajiks living in Uzbekistan and in Tajikistan itself. Therefore, the time has come to seriously deal with the following questions.
"BUSINESS Online" continues to publish chapters from the new book by Rafael Khakimov "What is it like to be a Tatar?". Part 16
It is quite natural to consider Tatars as Tatar-speaking. But it was not there. There are different opinions in the scientific literature on this matter. Some experts consider the early Tatars to be Mongol-speaking, without any reason, the director of the Institute of History. Marjani Rafael Khakimov.
“I ASKED TO BRING ME DOCUMENTS IN MONGOLIAN. THEY DID NOT APPEAR. ALL DOCUMENTS ARE WRITTEN IN TATAR»
The truth should be presented as a coat is served, and not thrown in the face like a wet towel.
Mark Twain
One of the historiographical stereotypes claims that the Golden Horde had two state languages: Mongolian and another one... Here everyone stumbles, trying to find the right variant and at the same time not call it Tatar. Moreover, there is no doubt about the first language: since the empire is Mongolian, it means that the language is Mongolian. And with the second, amazing adventures begin, where the imagination of scientists works to its fullest.
I am a physicist by education, and the traditions of historiography do not touch me much, at least they do not determine approaches to the study of history. Therefore, I asked our specialists to bring me documents in Mongolian. They did not appear. All documents are written in Tatar. And how do you like it?
The question arises, because scientists are serious people, they had to rely on something in their conclusions about the Mongolian language. Indeed, in 1930, on the left bank of the Volga near the village of Ternovka, a manuscript was found on birch bark dating from the beginning of the 14th century. It is written in the Uyghur alphabet mostly in Mongolian, less in Uyghur. Some put an end to this, others still continue. The birch bark scroll contains lyrical verses. This single case, for some, serves as an argument in favor of the prevalence of the Mongolian language among the Tatars, including the Khan's administration. Agree, this is not a document, but poetry, moreover, on birch bark. The khan's office had both paper and parchment.
Photo: archive.gov.tatarstan.ru
It turned out that everyone refers to the same author - A.P. Grigorieva, which builds everything on a single quote from the message Plano Carpini: “... We brought a letter and asked to give us interpreters who could translate it. They were given to us... And we, together with them, carefully transferred the letter to Russian and Saracen scripts and to the scripts of the Tatars; this translation was presented to Batu, and he read it and carefully noted it." This quote is followed by the statement: “So, during the time of the first Golden Horde Khan Batu (1227-1255), the Golden Horde chancellery conducted office work in the Mongolian language.” Such a conclusion is drawn from the arbitrary identification of the Tatars with the Mongols, although nothing prevents us from assuming that Batu read Tatar, because Carpini explicitly says that the text was translated into Tatar. To suggest that Batu could read in the Tatar language did not occur to any of the historians. Since Batu allegedly read in Mongolian, it means that the language of the Horde was Mongolian. This statement has become generally accepted, scientists simply refer to Grigoriev as an authoritative researcher of the Golden Horde documents. This is how false history is made.
Of the entire cohort of reputable scientists, the exception wasMirkasym Usmanov, who did not see any reason to consider the early court documents of the Jochids as Mongol-speaking, especially their language cannot be judged from Russian translations, as Grigoriev does. How can you guess in a Russian document that it was translated from Mongolian? According to supposedly "Mongolian" terminology? But after all, the Mongolian language was under the strongest influence of the Tatar language. It was not the Tatars who borrowed the terminology from the Mongols, but, on the contrary, it migrated from the Tatar to the Mongolian language, which is proven by linguists.
No less interesting is the situation with the Tatar language in the Golden Horde. It would seem that it is quite natural to consider the Tatars as Tatar-speaking, but that was not the case. There are different opinions in the scientific literature on this matter. Some experts consider the early Tatars to be Mongol-speaking, without any reason.
Prev the provision on the Mongol-speaking Tatars is based on the opinion that the Mongols, of course, spoke only Mongolian, but it is necessary, they say, to deal with the Tatars. Why not assume otherwise? It is impossible to exclude the knowledge of the Tatar language by the medieval Mongols. Thus, according to the text of the Secret History, it is clear that Genghis Khan freely communicates with representatives of the obviously Turkic-speaking Onguts (“White Tatars”), Karluks, and Uighurs. This does not mean that everyone around spoke Mongolian, it is logical to assume that Genghis Khan, being from the "black Tatars", knew his native language.
Some researchers claim the existence of a mixed Tatar-Mongolian pidgin in the Middle Ages, although there is no information about this.
An extensive literature arose around the language of the Golden Horde, trying to find influence on the Tatars not only of the Mongolian, but also of the Uighur, Kypchak, Karakhanid, Karluk, Chagatai dialects, they call the official language Oguz-Kypchak, Khorezm-Volga, Volga-Golden Horde, Turks or Turkic.
In books, writers and artists always draw Tatars slanted, and in films they speak Kazakh for some reason, and the Tatars and Mongols of the Golden Horde are not at all like modern Mongols.Lev Gumilyovwrites: “The ancient Mongols were, according to the testimony of chroniclers and finds of frescoes in Manchuria, a tall, bearded, fair-haired and blue-eyed people ... Temujin is tall and majestic in stature, with a broad forehead and a long beard. The personality is militant and strong. That's what makes him different from others." Despite the testimony of the chroniclers, in all the portraits Genghis Khan is depicted as a typical Mongoloid, with rare exceptions. In the Chinese drawing of the 13th - 14th centuries, which depicts Genghis Khan during a falconry, he is clearly not canonical.
"THE DESIRE TO CALL THE LANGUAGE OF THE HORDE CHAGATAI, TURKIC CAN BE EXPLAINED BY ONLY ONE REASON..."
The transformation of Tatars into Mongols has become a historiographical tradition. At the same time, all sources unanimously speak of the Tatar language, which was written in the Golden Horde. In the "Letter on the way of life of the Tatars" by the Dominican missionary Juliana(1238) there is the following evidence of the message of the Khan of the Golden Horde to the King of Hungary: "The message is written in a pagan script, but in the Tatar language." We are talking about a runic letter, which was used in the Golden Horde.
Each language has its own native speaker - a certain people. The spoken Tatar language of the Middle Ages differed from the clerical and literary ones, and the spoken language in its details could also differ from territory to territory. Nevertheless, the language is tied to the people and their state, unless, of course, it is a dead language like Latin. The desire to call the language of the Horde Chagatai, Turkic, etc. can be explained by only one reason - the desire not to call it Tatar. There are proposals to call the official language of the Golden Horde Old Tatar or, as a compromise, Turko-Tatar. There is no need for this, because it can be unmistakably called the Tatar language of office work!
Who has a country, he has a language.
Tatar proverb
"GARVARD UNIVERSITY PROPOSED US TO HOLD A FORUM WITH THE PARTICIPATION OF MINTIMER SHAIMIEV»
It's great that America was discovered, but it would be much more wonderful if Columbus sailed by.
Mark Twain
In 1994, after the signing of the famous Treaty between Moscow and Kazan, the reputation of Tatarstan began to grow, although some newspapers like The Washington Post called us the island of "communism." Then Harvard University suggested that we hold a forum withMintimer Shaimiev. Presidents of many countries, famous politicians spoke at this forum. Quite a prestigious event where university professors and numerous journalists can ask any questions, while there is a live broadcast on cable television. Of course, there were those in our presidential staff who dissuaded Shaimiev from going, they say, not on your level, but in the end, Mintimer Sharipovich decided and we flew to Boston.
I have already written about the political side of this event. Let me tell you about the historical part: the forum was opened by the famous American SlavistEdward Kinnan. He is a notorious historian, hated by many Russian scientists, since he wrote for many years that The Tale of Igor's Campaign was a forgery of the 18th century, falsified by a Czech linguist.Yosef Dobrovsky. I remember that his thick and solid book, which was still in print, had critical articles in Russia even before it was published.
Kinnan wrote his doctoral thesis on the Kazan Khanate and the relationship between Kazan and Moscow. Opening the forum, he said that he was faced with a difficult task - to tell about the 500-year history of the Tatars in five minutes. There we met. Later, while in Washington, I went to see him at the old Dumbarton Oaks mansion in the suburbs of the American capital, Georgetown. It is known as the largest center of Byzantine studies. There is a park adjacent to it. The estate, along with a park and museum of Byzantine art and pre-Columbian civilization, is managed by a trustee of Harvard University. Kinnan, as a trustee, sat in the historic office where the Charter of the League of Nations (UN) was drafted and adopted.
I had to talk about his doctoral dissertation for publication in Kazan and about the concept of the IV volume of "History of the Tatars from ancient times." We walked around the park and talked about various topics. By the way, he was aware of all the affairs in Tatarstan, he reported the latest news from the Internet. His Russian was simply brilliant, without the slightest accent.
He did not dare to publish his doctoral dissertation in Russian, explaining that at one time he lacked many of the materials that are now in circulation: Russian is not allowed. Nevertheless, his idea of the clan structure of the Tatar khanates became an accepted story. He once noted in an interview that the clan system has not yet been eliminated in Russia.
To a greater extent, I was worried about the "History of the Tatars ...", especially Volume IV, dedicated to the Tatar khanates. There was no clarity with the boundaries of this period. He asked:
What year do you want to complete the fourth volume?
I replied:
Naturally, in 1552.
Will not work.
Why?
The Tatar factor disappears from the world stage only with the fall of the Crimean Khanate.
But that where we get into Russian history.
Where are you going...
So he summed up our conversation and explained that the post-Golden Horde period was a time of fragile alliances between Moscow, Kazan and Crimea. All three players fought for the Horde legacy.
All Russian historiography, which is trying to prove that the Russians fought the Golden Horde, is a lie: the Russians were loyal to the existing government and did not think about secession, but they dreamed of moving the capital from Saray to Moscow. And in this, the Russians were helped by a part of the Tatars who settled in Moscow back in the time of Daniel. Moscow was originally semi-Tatar. It was constantly replenished with Tatars looking for a better life, career growth, or simply adventurers.
There was absolutely no need for us to get the Tatars into Russian history (and even with criticism), this would inevitably create an unhealthy political situation. But, fortunately for us, there were enough Moscow objective authors. They wrote the most complex pages in Russian-Tatar relations. In addition, Russian historians had problems in their ranks, such concepts appeared in the historical field that the Tatars had no time for.
We did the same with the Khazar Khaganate. Moscow specialists wrote about the Khazars. After the release of the first volume, where a lot was said about the Khazars, a representative of the Jewish community of Kazan approached me and expressed his opinion:
We have read the first volume. Yes. Everything is written about the Khazars correctly.
So yours also wrote ...
Thank you.
Listen to someone else's advice, but live with your own mind.
About the history of the Golden Horde, its poetry and culture according to the transmission of the Russian Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation.
Mongolian warriors, among them we see a detachment commander on a horse and a signalman on a camel.
Mongolian warriors, among them we see a detachment commander on a horse and a signalman on a camel. From the Mongolian site on history.
So, from the program about the history and poetry of the Golden Horde, released in December 2004 on the Russian Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. The guest of the program was Ravil Bukharaev, a historian of the Golden Horde and a translator of its poets, below is the transmission in the text in a partial transcript of the site, you can listen to it in full in audio file:
Ravil Bukharaev tells about the origin of the Horde:
“The invasion of neighboring countries was Mongol. When the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, approached the Caspian Sea, they circumnavigated it in six months. Then, after that, they encountered the Russians on the (river) Kalka (May 31, 1223. Note site), already exhausted by this campaign around the entire Caspian, they were pure Mongols.
But later, when Genghis Khan no longer led the invasion of Russia and Europe (the new, second, invasion took place 13 years later Note .. by that time he had already died, the Chingizid princes took over the leadership. Batu was ahead, but he was far from Chief among the Genghisid princes was Guyuk (grandson of Genghis Khan. Note ..
The army that was formed at the time of the invasion of Russia and Europe was an army with a different composition. The Mongols occupied the central military positions there, but in fact this army was already Kipchak. And they should have been called not the Mongol-Tatars, but the Mongol-Kipchaks. Because it was the population of the Great Steppe, and the Kypchaks are the former Polovtsians from Russian legends.
There were no Tatars as such (there). The modern Kazan Tatars with the modern name of the people, its ethnonym, are just the people that turned out as a result of ethnogenesis, in the process or something. There was Volga Bulgaria, which was part of the Golden Horde, and the population of Bulgaria mixed with the Kipchaks, of course, and also mixed with the Slavs, who converted to Islam.
Why Islam? After all, the army of Genghis Khan was not Muslim ...
The army of Genghis Khan was not even Buddhist. They were Tengrians - worshipers of the sky (i.e. shamanists. Note site), although among them were Nestorian Christians ( - one of the sects of the Christian church, formed in Byzantium. Note..
But when under Khan Berke (another grandson of Genghis Khan, ruled in 1257-1266, at the same time, the Mongolian state was divided into independent states founded by the descendants of Genghis Khan on the territory from Beijing to the Crimea. Note. site) the Golden Horde was founded, and there was a problem of choosing a faith, then Berke became a Muslim in order to establish diplomatic ties with the most powerful state of that time, and this was, of course, Fatimid Egypt (which had broken away from the Arab Caliphate by that time, and the Caliphate itself in Baghdad, a century later, it also fell under the rule of the Turkic tribes under the nominal rule of the caliph, who became only the spiritual ruler of the faithful.The end of the caliphate was put by the Mongols who took Baghdad in 1258. After that, the Turks, in particular, the Ottomans, always stood at the head of the Muslim world. ).
Later, these two states - the Golden Horde and Fatimid Egypt were friends for a century, and together repelled the raids of ... whom? Mongolian Ilkhans in Persia. The Mongol army, the state and the people by that time had already split into parts, including (the dynasty) in Persia, and the Golden Horde. They were, it would seem, because of one people, but they became terrible rivals around the Silk Road, as well as in the Caspian and the Caucasus. Under Khan Berke, the Horde begins to become a Muslim state, and already, somewhere under Khan Uzbek, it becomes a major Muslim civilization. The Oguz-Kypchak language was the language of the Golden Horde. He, of course, was a Turkic language. (Along with the Turkic language, the Mongols adopted the script of the Turkic Uighurs as the script for the Mongolian language, which has always been preserved in historical Mongolia. Approx. site).
(The Mongol Empire was, contrary to popular belief, not only a nomadic, but also a huge settled power. It had a hundred cities ) ... Some of them are still standing. Most of the Volga cities stand on the ruins of the Golden Horde cities. This is preserved in their names. Saratov is Saratau ("Yellow Mountain"). Tsaritsyn was named very wittily from Sarysa, a Turkic name. Samara, Kamyshin, Kazan, Urgench, and, of course, the cities of Crimea were also Horde cities.
In addition to what we are talking about, the legacy of the Golden Horde has remained in the names of many famous people (in Russia). For example, Rachmaninov. His surname comes from Rahman, translated as "The Gracious". Derzhavin comes from Bogrim-Murza, who directly left the Golden Horde. And Karamzin's ancestors were called Kara-Murzins. Among Russian families, especially those of the nobility, there are a myriad of clans that at one time left the Golden Horde...
The largest cities of the Horde were Sarai-Batu (not far from the current Astrakhan) and Sarai-Berke (not far from the present Volgograd, on the Akhtuba River). They were on the rivers. These were cities in which there were mosques, Orthodox churches. There was an Orthodox Bishop of Sarai Peter. There were Catholic churches and synagogues. Craftsmen, scribes-bureaucrats, and poets lived in the shed cities. These were trade and craft cities. For merchants there were incredibly good conditions. The Golden Horde khans observed their own laws very strictly. Protecting the roads and securing trade was one of the top priorities.
From there, “pits” appeared in Russia, that is, inns, from there coachmen. From there appeared (in Russia) regular mail. The merchant had to pay only three percent of the customs duty in order to pass through the entire territory of the Golden Horde, and this is from the Crimea, from Feodosia, to the Irtysh and the Aral Sea. After payment, they received a paiza tablet - silver or copper, and no one else dared to take any requisitions from the merchant.
Horde cities were made of stone. When asked where these cities have gone? Until the 16th century, these cities were still dismantled and broken into bricks. Horde brick was the best, the so-called. "mama brick". Many Volga cities were built from this brick. Rachmaninoff's music... is a longing for the will, which is dissolved in the idea of this great state," the program said.
During the program, Ravil Bukharaev read several of his translations from Turkic of the love lyrics of the Golden Horde poets. It is interesting that military themes were not popular in the Golden Horde poetry, because. the Mongol army was usually, according to Ravil Bukharaev, always either on a campaign or in military camps, and was separated from the cities, not interested in poetry.
Golden Horde poetry included many ethnic Turkic poets who lived in the cities of Central Asia conquered by the Golden Horde. Ravil Bukharaev cites one of the poems of the Central Asian Turkic Golden Horde poet about the need to learn devotion to God from Catholic Christians. (It is interesting that after the restoration of the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople in 1261 and, accordingly, the defeat by the Byzantines of the Latin Empire, founded by the Crusaders in this city 57 years earlier, some Catholic knights remained to live in the Anatolia region - the suburbs of Constantinople, the border of Byzantium, It was no longer controlled by it, among the Seljuk Turks paying tribute to the Mongols. Note that thanks to the Mongols, Anatolia was freed from the influence of the Arab Caliphate, but the Mongols did not conquer the truncated Byzantium. The knights, at first, were in no hurry to return to Europe, but also to Byzantium they also never returned, where for two whole centuries, until the very Ottoman conquest, the Byzantine historical dynasty of the Palaiologos ruled - a dynasty that ruled from Thrace under the Latins - the border of present-day Bulgaria and Greece; the area known during the period of the loss of Constantinople by the Paleologs and as the Empire of Nicaea) .
Also on this topic:
One of the hallmarks of a great nation is its ability to rise to its feet after a fall. No matter how hard his humiliation may be, but the appointed hour will strike, he will gather his confused moral forces and embody them in one great person or several great people, who will lead him to the straight historical path he has temporarily abandoned.
V. Klyuchevsky
In September 1980, the Soviet people celebrated the 600th anniversary with great pomp. Not a single magazine or newspaper remained aloof from this event, which was important for Russian history. But, before starting a story about the events of the Kulikovo field, it is necessary to make a few observations, because the battle of 1380 is the result of a large historical process that took place over several centuries.
If we take a general look at the medieval history of Eastern Europe, we will first have to pay attention to the complex and contradictory relations and the struggle between two superethnoi - the Turks and the Slavs.
Firstly, after the collapse of Great Bulgaria Kubrat Khan, only one state, created by the Turks, remains in the steppes of Eastern Europe. This is the Khazar Khaganate. The struggle between the Khazar Khaganate and Kievan Rus ends with the victory of Prince Svyatoslav in 965.
Secondly, from the end of the 10th century (since 990), a desperate struggle began between Kievan Rus and the union of the Pechenegs, who penetrated the steppes of Eastern Europe. But soon this struggle stops. The fact is that at the beginning of the 11th century, the Kypchaks, having separated from the Kimak Kaganate, were heading west. They penetrate the steppes, where the Pechenegs ruled. The fight for a place under the sun begins. Strong and numerous Kypchak tribes are driving the Pechenegs out of the Eastern European steppes and forcing them to retreat to the west - to the Danube steppes.
Thirdly, the Kipchaks who took the place of the Pechenegs, in turn, begin to fight against Kievan Rus (in 1061, Prince Vsevolod was defeated by the Kipchaks). The struggle continues for quite a long time, and only during the reign of a strong prince (he died in 1125), the activity of the Kypchak tribes subsides somewhat.
Russian princes in the internecine struggle often attract the Kipchak tribes and deftly use them in their own interests. They marry their sons to the daughters of high-ranking Kypchaks - this is how family relationships are established and nepotism appears. Despite this, tense relations remain between the Turks - the Kipchaks and the Russians. (For example, the campaigns of the Russian princes against the Kypchaks in 1168, 1182, 1184, 1202, 1205 speak just about this). Such an unceasing struggle is explained by the fact that the Kipchaks of the steppe make constant attacks and unexpected attacks on the Russian princes. The Kypchaks live unorganized. They take the side of one or the other prince and participate in many clashes.
If at this time the Russian princes are competing to occupy the “golden Kyiv table”, that is, to ascend the main throne in the glorious city of Kyiv, then among the Kipchaks there is no idea of uniting, accumulating forces and on this basis organizing something like their own statehood. Therefore, the Kipchaks, who broke into the steppes of Eastern Europe with all their might in the middle of the 11th century, do not have a common idea that would serve as a unifying principle for them.
They fight with anyone, serve anyone, and each khan cares only about his own interests. And naturally, in such an environment, their original powerful energy is wasted for nothing and without benefit to themselves. It must be said that during this period in the steppes of Eastern Europe the Turkic massif increased much, and this circumstance would still play a positive role during the formation of the Golden Horde.
In 1223, the Mongol army breaks into the steppes of Eastern Europe, and from that time on, the ethnic groups living here are experiencing great trials and changes. In the first battle on the Kalka River, the united Russian-Kypchak army came out against the enemy. But the Mongols win the battle. According to the historian Rizaetdin Fakhretdin, “Jochi Khan (the son of Genghis Khan) broke through the Derbent passage to the Eastern European steppes in order to enter into an alliance with the Kypchak Turks.
But because of the instigation of the Russian princes, the Kypchaks and mountaineers opposed the army of Jochi Khan (1223,). I must say, at the most crucial moment, the Russian regiments left the battlefield, and for this reason the Kipchaks were defeated, and their tribal union broke up ”(Fakhretdin R. Khans of the Golden Horde. - Kazan, 1996. - P. 75-76).
Indeed, this seems to be true, because before the start of the battle, the Mongols, having sent a man to the Kipchaks, tried to persuade them not to join the battle, citing the fact that the Mongols and Kipchaks are blood brothers. This is also reflected in the sources.
Returning from the Kalkin battle, the Mongol army also enters the lands located somewhat away from the steppe, but here it was defeated by the Bulgars; about four thousand people fled. And thirteen years later, a large Mongol army, having crossed the Yaik River, began to conquer the states of Eastern Europe.
So, in 1236 the Volga Bulgaria was conquered, in 1237 - Ryazan, Moscow and the Vladimir principality. Two years later, the city of Kyiv, glorious with its gilded domes, falls into the hands of the Mongols, then the Mongol army captures Galicia, Volhynia, Poland, Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and in 1242 even reaches the walls of Vienna.
After formidable campaigns in 1243, the Dzhuchiev ulus was formed in the steppe Volga region, later called the Golden Horde.
Turks and Mongols
In the army that came from the east, along with the Mongol element, the lion's share was made up of the Turks. Of course, the khans were of Mongolian origin, they were all Genghisides. But in the army, representatives of the Turkic tribes were in the majority, and this gives us the right to call the campaigns Mongol-Turkic. True, in Russian historical science, few people pay attention to this, the expression “Mongols” or “Tatar-Mongols” is accepted there.
But the truth is more precious. In addition, after the formation of the Golden Horde, the Mongols in the Turkic environment became Turkic in two generations. This is an established fact. So the campaigns that gave the world new incentives that contributed to the mixing of blood are not an accidental phenomenon. The activities of great commanders, such as Genghis Khan or Alexander the Great and others, would hardly have been possible without the sanction of heaven. There are clear indications of this in esoteric sources.
The formation of the Golden Horde unites within the framework of one state the scattered ethnic groups living in the steppes and for many centuries sedentary peoples have been arguing with each other. If we evaluate objectively, this is, without a doubt, a manifestation of progress. Of course, a lot of blood is shed in wars, spiritual and material values are destroyed. But doesn't the creation of the new, the rise to a new stage of development, take place through the rejection of the old, which has become obsolete? This is the basic law of evolution.
In the book of N.K. Roerich "The Power of Light" there is an interesting idea about this. He writes: “The great migrations of peoples are not an accident. There can be no accidents in world constant phenomena. This feature tempers the most vital forces of peoples. In contact with new neighbors, consciousness expands and the forms of new races are forged. Therefore, living mobility is one of the signs of wisdom ”(Roerich N.K. Power of Light. - New York, 1931. - P. 155).
Development and regression of the Mongol horde
But another researcher, close in spirit to Roerich, writes about nomads: “Nomads broke into the Eurasian expanses when the ancient civilizations of settled farmers were already dying. Like ocean waves, they swept across the Planet, carrying in themselves the energy that then nourished countless generations of various peoples ”(Shaposhnikova L.V. Decrees of the Cosmos. - M., 1996. - P. 43).
What is the meaning of the Mongol-Turkic campaigns? To answer this question, first of all, it is necessary to find out what this phenomenon gives evolutionary development. Let's imagine Eastern Europe at that time. What is the state of the Russian principalities at this time? I must say, at this time they are waging internecine wars among themselves - development has stopped, everyone is passionate about the struggle for power. And the Mongol-Turkic campaigns bring unprecedented movement and fresh winds to this musty world. Having joined the Golden Horde, Russians get acquainted with a new state structure, new laws, a new military system, learn new methods of administration, tax collection, discover new ways of communication between parts of the state (pits). New trade routes appear, and so on.
Aren't all these innovations a move forward, a new round of progress? If so, then the great movement of peoples, the great campaigns, as a result of which the Golden Horde was formed, must be considered as a result of the influence of external forces, because the cosmos is constantly working to advance humanity along the path of evolution, but never interferes unnecessarily in the affairs of the earth, everything made by human hands. Therefore, people do not feel it, they think that it happened by itself.
We have already said that even before the Mongol-Turkic campaigns in the steppes of Eastern Europe, an array of Kypchak tribes intensified, that they became the main rivals of the Slavs in this region. And with the formation of the Golden Horde, these steppes generally turned into the Kypchak steppe, and it went down in history under the name Deshti Kypchak. Thus, the Kipchaks become the main ethnic group here, and the Mongols, as already mentioned, are assimilated. The Turks are turning into not only the ruling, but also the state-forming people. Of course, the Volga Bulgaria also did not remain aloof from this process. It can be considered that the "Tatarization" of the Bulgars began precisely in this period.
Finally, I met a source that clarifies this question to some extent. In No. 7, 8 of the Miras (Heritage) magazine for 1996, Ibn al-Athir's work entitled "Excellence in the Compilation of Chronicles" was published. The source refers to the reign of Berke Khan, describes the arrival of ambassadors from Egypt and their reception in the Khan's yurt. “Berke Khan sits on the throne, next to him is his eldest wife, then 50-60 emirs are seated on the benches. When the envoys entered the khan, Berke Khan ordered the viziers to read out the letter... The senior Qadi standing next to Berke Khan translated the letter and gave the list to the Khan (what kind of list is unclear. - S.Sh.). The letter began to be read to the people of Berke Khan in Turkic. The Tatars were very happy about this ... ”(Miras. - 1996. - No. 7-8. - P. 189).
I must say that the last sentence contains very valuable information. This means that from the very beginning of the formation of the Golden Horde (the first Khan Batu died in 1255), the Turkic Tatars took an active part in government. Of course, we cannot say exactly how many of those emirs who participated in the reception of the ambassadors were from the Turko-Tatars. However, attention is drawn to the fact that the letter that arrived with the ambassador was specially translated for the Turkic Tatars, which made them very happy. This fact suggests that the Genghis Khans of the Golden Horde also relied on the Turkic Tatars in governing the state, so the transformation of the Turkic language into the official language of the state in a short time was a natural phenomenon.
Thus, the Turks who became part of the Golden Horde, living in a continuous Kypchak linguistic environment, are drawn into a single center in socio-political, economic and cultural relations and create a common language, culture and literature.
Being a living organism, a changing system, the Golden Horde is also going through different times. But this state reaches the greatest power and great authority in the world in (1312-1342). At this time, its political influence, high standard of living, well-established economy and developed culture reach such heights that it becomes a role model for neighboring states. It was during this period that Islam became the official religion. From various points of the Muslim world, religious figures, famous scientists and writers flock to Saray.
The well-known Muslim traveler Ibn Batutta, who passed through the lands of the Golden Horde during these years, notes peace and prosperity in the state, the safety of roads, the presence of many caravanserais and khanakas along the way, in which Sufis and dervishes live. On the way, the traveler meets with a huge procession with hundreds of yurts, walking, filling half of the steppe. As it turns out later, it was a procession accompanying one of the wives of Uzbek Khan. Such luxury and breadth surprised him greatly.
However, it was during the reign of Uzbek Khan that prosperity, untold wealth flowing to the center of the state, high authority and diplomatic successes caused dizziness and calmness. People begin to live for their own pleasure, receiving only pleasure from life and not thinking about anything. Naturally, such behavior does not lead to good. It is known that if you think that you have achieved everything, and calmed down on this, know that you are lost. This means that development has stopped.
Uzbek Khan also granted many privileges to the Russian principalities subject to him. At one time, Rizaetdin Fakhretdin also drew attention to this. Assessing the activities of this khan, he simultaneously points out his mistakes. He writes: “Undoubtedly, Uzbek Khan was an outstanding ruler, under whom the Golden Horde reached unprecedented prosperity and power in politics. It lies in the fact that, while strengthening the Moscow principality and not realizing it, he was gradually preparing a serious enemy against the Golden Horde. Uzbek Khan eliminated the constantly warring small principalities and brought them together. For this reason, the Russians felt their strength ”(Fakhretdin R. Khans of the Golden Horde. - Kazan, 1996. - P. 95). Moreover, Uzbek Khan gives the Metropolitan of Russia Peter, the Orthodox religion, unlimited liberties, frees the monastery lands from paying an annual tribute (yasak). According to the same R. Fakhretdin, in the label of the khan, given in defense of the Orthodox religion, there were the following words: “If anyone defames the Christian religion, utters insulting words against churches, monasteries and chapels, that person will be executed.”
Of course, every nation has every right to profess its religion, adhere to its customs and rules of life. In this regard, there was unlimited freedom of religion and tolerance in the Golden Horde, each religion had equal rights, was not oppressed in any way, which turned the state into one of the most advanced. Visiting guests and ambassadors from different countries paid attention to this feature. They were extremely surprised by such freedom in the choice of faith, which in their own countries they could not even dream of. All this suggests that, apparently, in the Golden Horde there was no proper understanding that religion is one of the strongest types of ideological weapons.
Let's turn to the Orthodox religion. If the khans saw this religion as a strong ideological weapon directed against the Muslim Tatars, if they understood that this religion contributes to the unification of the Russian people and at the same time is in the hands of the clergy a strong means of instilling hostility towards Muslims among the people, they would hardly have given it so many freedoms. The Russian people perked up precisely thanks to their religious leaders, gradually got stronger, believed in themselves and eventually turned into a force that took up arms against Saray. So the Golden Horde, with its rash policy, brought up a strong enemy against itself.
Here's what's interesting: Uzbek Khan, having taken the throne, immediately begins a merciless struggle against, which still existed among the Mongols, makes a lot of efforts to eradicate this religion in his state. For this reason, it is at odds with the Mongols. But he grants broad rights to Orthodoxy, not thinking that such a policy could create serious problems for the state in the future.
Under Uzbek Khan and his son Dzhanibek Khan, the Golden Horde is still flourishing, but after the assassination of Birdebek Khan, who ascended the throne (1359), internal turmoil and a struggle for power begin in the state.
In 1360-1361 the state was divided into right and left wings. If the lands lying to the east of the Volga represent the left wing, the eastern ones are included in the right wing. The Volga is a natural border between two parts of the state. If on one side with the center in Saray there is a constant change of khans, on the other side there is an energetic one, striving to put his khan on the throne. Thus, a civil war actually begins in the country, which will last for twenty years and turn into a factor that destroys the state from the inside. The Moscow principality deftly uses this instability to its advantage, and over the years it has been strengthening quite strongly. If this “great jam” had not arisen in the Golden Horde, then in 1380 the Russians would not have even thought of attacking the Tatars on the Kulikovo field.
Internal unrest in the Tatar state ends with a battle on the Kulikovo field. After that, who begins to strengthen the country, collecting uluses into a single center.
However, it must be said that it was not the forces of the central government that fought against the united Russian army on the Kulikovo field, but only, therefore, we strongly reject the opinion that the forces of the Golden Horde were defeated on the Kulikovo field. In this battle, the Russians fought only with Mamai Murza, who himself fought against the central government with its center in Sarai.
Two years after this battle, everything returns to normal. In 1382, Tokhtamysh Khan captured Moscow, and, having received the title of Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, as in previous years, he began to pay the so-called "Horde output" (i.e. yasak).
The Golden Horde (Turkish: Altyn Ordu), also known as the Kipchak Khanate or Ulus of Yuchi, was a Mongol state established in parts of present-day Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan after the collapse of the Mongol Empire in the 1240s. It lasted until 1440.
During its heyday, it was a strong commercial and trading state, providing stability in large areas of Russia.
Origin of the name "Golden Horde"
The name "Golden Horde" is a relatively late toponym. It arose in imitation of the "Blue Horde" and "White Horde", and these names, in turn, denoted either independent states or Mongolian armies, depending on the situation.
It is believed that the name "Golden Horde" came from the steppe system of designating the main directions with colors: black = north, blue = east, red = south, white = west and yellow (or gold) = center.
According to another version, the name came from the magnificent golden tent that Batu Khan set up to mark the place of his future capital on the Volga. Although accepted as true in the nineteenth century, this theory is now considered apocryphal.
There were no written monuments created before the 17th century (they were destroyed) that would mention such a state as the Golden Horde. In earlier documents, the state Ulus Jochi (Juchiev ulus) appears.
Some scholars prefer to use a different name - the Kipchak Khanate, because various derivatives of the Kipchak people were also found in medieval documents describing this state.
Mongolian origins of the Golden Horde
Until his death in 1227, Genghis Khan bequeathed to divide between his four sons, including the eldest Jochi, who died before Genghis Khan.
The part that Jochi received - the westernmost lands where the hooves of the Mongol horses could step, and then the south of Russia were divided between the sons of Jochi - the lord of the Blue Horde Batu (west) and Khan Orda, the lord of the White Horde (east).
Subsequently, Batu established control over the territories subject to the Horde, and also subjugated the northern coastal zone of the Black Sea, including the indigenous Turkic peoples in his army.
In the late 1230s and early 1240s, he conducted brilliant campaigns against the Volga Bulgaria and against the successor states, multiplying the military glory of his ancestors many times over.
The Blue Horde of Batu Khan annexed lands in the west, raiding Poland and Hungary after the battles of Legnica and Mukha.
But in 1241, the great Khan Udegei died in Mongolia, and Batu broke off the siege of Vienna to take part in a dispute over the succession. From then on, the Mongol armies never marched west again.
In 1242, Batu set up his capital at Saray, in his possessions on the lower reaches of the Volga. Shortly before this, the Blue Horde split - Batu's younger brother Shiban left Batu's army to create his own Horde east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh rivers.
Having achieved stable independence and created the state that today we call the Golden Horde, the Mongols gradually lost their ethnic identity.
While the descendants of the Mongols-warriors of Batu constituted the upper class of society, most of the population of the Horde consisted of Kipchaks, Bulgar Tatars, Kirghiz, Khorezmians and other Turkic peoples.
The supreme ruler of the Horde was a khan, elected by a kurultai (a cathedral of the Mongol nobility) among the descendants of Batu Khan. The post of prime minister was also held by an ethnic Mongol, known as the “prince of princes” or beklerbek (bek over beks). Ministers were called viziers. Local governors or Baskaks were responsible for collecting tribute and repaying popular discontent. Ranks, as a rule, were not divided into military and civilian.
The Horde developed as a sedentary rather than a nomadic culture, and Saray eventually becomes a populous and prosperous city. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the capital moved to Sarai Berke, located much further upstream, and became one of the largest cities in the medieval world, with a population estimated by the Encyclopædia Britannica at 600,000.
Despite Rus' efforts to convert the people of Sarai, the Mongols stuck to their traditional pagan beliefs until Khan Uzbek (1312-1341) adopted Islam as the state religion. Russian rulers - Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tverskoy - were reportedly killed in Sarai for their refusal to worship pagan idols, but the khans were generally tolerant and even exempted the Russian Orthodox Church from taxes.
Vassals and allies of the Golden Horde
The Horde collected tribute from its subordinate peoples - Russians, Armenians, Georgians and Crimean Greeks. The territories of the Christians were considered peripheral areas and were of no interest as long as they continued to pay tribute. These dependent states were never part of the Horde, and the Russian rulers quite soon even received the privilege of traveling around the principalities and collecting tribute for the khans. In order to maintain control over Russia, Tatar commanders carried out regular punitive raids on Russian principalities (the most dangerous in 1252, 1293 and 1382).
There is a point of view, widely spread by Lev Gumilyov, that the Horde and the Russians entered into an alliance for defense against fanatical Teutonic knights and pagan Lithuanians. Researchers point out that Russian princes often appeared at the Mongol court, in particular, Fedor Cherny, Prince of Yaroslavl, who boasted of his ulus near Sarai, and Prince Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod, brother of Batu's predecessor, Sartak Khan. Although Novgorod never recognized the dominance of the Horde, the Mongols supported the Novgorodians in the Battle of the Ice.
Saray was actively trading with the shopping centers of Genoa on the Black Sea coast - Surozh (Soldaya or Sudak), Kaffa and Tana (Azak or Azov). Also, the Mamluks of Egypt were the Khan's longtime trading partners and allies in the Mediterranean.
After the death of Batu in 1255, the prosperity of his empire continued for a whole century, until the assassination of Janibek in 1357. The White Horde and the Blue Horde were actually united into a single state by Batu's brother Berke. In the 1280s, power was usurped by Nogai, a khan who pursued a policy of Christian unions. The military influence of the Horde reached its peak during the reign of Uzbek Khan (1312-1341), whose army exceeded 300,000 warriors.
Their policy towards Russia was to constantly renegotiate alliances in order to keep Russia weak and divided. In the fourteenth century, the rise of Lithuania in northeastern Europe challenged Tatar control over Rus'. Thus, Uzbek Khan began to support Moscow as the main Russian state. Ivan I Kalita was given the title of Grand Duke and given the right to collect taxes from other Russian powers.
The "Black Death" - the bubonic plague pandemic of the 1340s was a major contributing factor to the eventual fall of the Golden Horde. After the assassination of Janibek, the empire was drawn into a long civil war that lasted for the next decade, with an average of one new khan a year in power. By the 1380s, Khorezm, Astrakhan and Muscovy tried to escape from the power of the Horde, and the lower part of the Dnieper was annexed by Lithuania and Poland.
Who was not formally on the throne, tried to restore Tatar power over Russia. His army was defeated by Dmitry Donskoy at the battle of Kulikov in the second victory over the Tatars. Mamai soon lost power, and in 1378 Tokhtamysh, a descendant of the Horde Khan and the ruler of the White Horde, invaded and annexed the territory of the Blue Horde, briefly establishing the dominance of the Golden Horde in these lands. In 1382 he punished Moscow for disobedience.
The mortal blow to the horde was dealt by Tamerlane, who in 1391 destroyed the army of Tokhtamysh, destroyed the capital, plundered the Crimean trade centers and took the most skilled craftsmen to his capital in Samarkand.
In the first decades of the fifteenth century, power was held by Idegei, the vizier who defeated Vytautas of Lithuania in the great battle of Vorskla and turned the Nogai Horde into his personal mission.
In the 1440s, the Horde was again destroyed by a civil war. This time it broke up into eight separate khanates: the Siberian Khanate, the Kasim Khanate, the Kazakh Khanate, the Uzbek Khanate and the Crimean Khanate, which divided the last remnant of the Golden Horde.
None of these new khanates was stronger than Muscovy, which by 1480 finally freed itself from Tatar control. The Russians eventually took over all of these khanates, starting with Kazan and Astrakhan in the 1550s. By the end of the century it was also part of Russia, and the descendants of its ruling khans entered the Russian service.
In 1475 the Crimean Khanate submitted, and by 1502 the same fate befell what was left of the Great Horde. The Crimean Tatars wreaked havoc in the south of Russia during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, but they could neither defeat her nor take Moscow. The Crimean Khanate was under Ottoman protection until Catherine the Great annexed it on April 8, 1783. It lasted longer than all the successor states of the Golden Horde.
