History of Italy. The fate of the Italian monarchy in the XX century King of Italy 5th century
Flag of the Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)
To date, there is no unequivocal answer to the question of the meaning of the colors of the Italian flag. However, the most correct version was proposed by V. Fiorini, that the colors of the flag correspond to the colors of the Milan police uniform. The uniforms of the police officers were white and green, later red was added when the police became the Italian National Guard.
In the middle of the flag, on a white field, a dynastic - Savoyard coat of arms was depicted with a simple shield, known since 1239: a silver cross in a scarlet field.
Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)
The coat of arms was a dynastic Savoyard coat of arms with a simple shield, known since 1239: a silver cross in a scarlet field. Such is the shield in the coat of arms of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem (today better known as Maltese). According to legend, Amedee IV of Savoy helped the order to defend the island of Rhodes against the Turks and, in memory of military friendship, likened his own coat of arms to the order. The coat of arms was decorated with a specially composed "Savoy royal crown", perhaps the only purely dynastic crown in the history of heraldry. It looked like an ordinary royal one, but the ordinary leaf-shaped teeth on its hoop were interspersed with white, scarlet-edged Savoy crosses, while the orb crowning the crown was decorated with a golden cross of a special, trefoil shape, traditionally associated with Saint Mauritius, the patron saint of Savoy. This crown was neither proper Italian nor ducal Savoyard; not associated with either a specific title or a specific territory, it only indicated the exceptional dignity of the ruling family.
Iron crown of the Lombard kings (V-VIII centuries), which was used to marry Italian monarchs
In fact, it is gold with precious stones and cloisonné enamel, only the inner hoop is made of iron. According to legend, it is forged from a nail - one of those that pierced the body of the Savior on the cross. True, according to modern researchers, the hoop has nothing to do with the sacred relic, they simply strengthened the structure, since gold is too soft a metal. No crown in the world has served its intended purpose for as long as the crown of the Lombards. Starting from the 10th century, the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, which included Northern Italy, were crowned with it. In 1805, having expelled the imperial dynasty of the Habsburgs from Italy, he wished to be crowned with it. Putting on an iron crown, he proclaimed: "God gave it to me - and woe to him who touches it." Now the crown is kept in the main cathedral of the Italian city of Monza.
Italian states
Kingdom of Italy
Il regno d'Italia(lat. and ital.)
Italy(French) Italian(German), Italy(English)
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The Apennine Peninsula began to be inhabited about 50 thousand years ago. By the 1st millennium BC. The peninsula was inhabited by diverse and distinctive tribes, most of which belonged to the Indo-Europeans. Among them, the most famous are the Ligurians, Umbrians, Veneti, Piceni, Etruscans, Latins, and Osci. These tribes experienced a strong Greek influence (Greek colonies were located on the southern coast of the peninsula and in Sicily). The Greeks brought to the Apennines the culture of growing grapes and olives, their alphabet and religion. It is believed that the very name "Italy" comes from the Greek word "Fitalia" - "land of cattle." At first, only the “toe” of the Italian “boot” was called Italy, and by the 1st century BC. this name spread throughout the country to the Alps.
However, the greatest trace in Italian history among the pre-Roman cultures was left by the Etruscans, also known as the Tus, Tyrsenes or Tyrrhenes. The origin of the Etruscans is unknown. It is even possible that they were not Indo-Europeans. The Etruscans founded a number of cities in Central Italy (modern Tuscany) and created their own state - Etruria. They had an original culture, religion, writing.
An important milestone in the history of Italy was the foundation of Rome in the valley of the Tiber River. According to a widespread legend, this happened on April 21, 753 BC, but it is clear that a settlement existed on this site before. In the 7th century BC. Rome became the center of the Latin Union - a federation of cities in the region of Latium. The Romans began to conquer the surrounding tribes, which led to the formation of a powerful state - Ancient Rome. His story in itself is very interesting and worthy of a separate article.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in 117 under the emperor. Its territory covered all of southern and part of Western Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East and Asia Minor. However, internal turmoil led to the fact that in 395 the Roman Empire was divided into two parts - Western and Eastern. The Eastern Roman Empire lasted another thousand years under the name of the Byzantine Empire. The Western Roman Empire, on the other hand, began to be subjected to regular raids by barbarian tribes. By the beginning of the 460s, only Italy remained under the rule of Rome. The agony of the empire was interrupted in 476, when one of the leaders of the barbarians, Odoacer, proclaimed king by his army, deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus.
Odoacer renounced the title of emperor, but retained the title of Roman patrician; Eastern Roman emperor Zeno made him his viceroy in the West. Roman laws and the structure of the state apparatus were preserved.
In 488, Odoacer supported the rebellion of the commander Ill. decided to get rid of an unreliable vassal, for which he entered into negotiations with the leader of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric. In 489 the Ostrogoths crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. After a short struggle, Odoacer's army was defeated. In 493, two barbarian leaders decided to share power in Italy between themselves, but at a feast where an agreement was reached, Theodoric killed Odoacer.
The Ostrogoths captured almost the entire territory of Italy, as well as Provence, Pannonia and Dalmatia. Like Odoacer, Theodoric considered himself a Roman patrician and imperial viceroy in the West, but was in fact an independent ruler.
In 534, the Gothic nobility overthrew Queen Amalasunta, who pursued a pro-Byzantine policy. Dissatisfied with this, Emperor Justinian I declared war on the Ostrogoths. The fighting lasted 18 years, began with short breaks. Their result was the fall of the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in 552. For a short period, Italy became part of the Byzantine Empire.
In 568, the Lombards came from Pannonia to Italy. They founded the first Lombard state in the Apennines - the Duchy of Friuli, after which they began to move south. Having defeated the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines had not yet managed to fully manage the newly acquired territories. Taking advantage of this, the Lombards split the Byzantine possessions in Italy into several regions. Under the rule of the Byzantines, mainly coastal cities remained, where ancient traditions were strong, and the Lombards ruled in the interior. On the other hand, the Byzantine possessions around Rome and Ravenna - the so-called Byzantine corridor - also divided the barbarian kingdom into two parts, Greater and Lesser Langobardia, which did not contribute to its stability. Gradually, a "third force" was formed in Italy in the person of the papacy. The popes of Rome owned huge land plots and enjoyed the support of the general population. The popes were the actual rulers of the Byzantine lands in Italy and the organizers of the resistance to the Lombards. Meanwhile, the power of the Lombards continued to grow. By 751, they captured almost the entire Exarchate of Ravenna. Fearing the capture of Rome, the popes began to seek an alliance with the Franks. Clashes between the Lombards and the Franks began as early as 574, when the Lombards invaded the Frankish state. Further clashes alternated with long - several decades - periods of peace. After Liutprand married the niece of Charles Martel in 720, relations became completely warm and friendly. The Lombards and the Franks jointly repulsed the raids of the Arabs.
Meanwhile, in 751, the Merovingian major Pepin the Short overthrew the dynasty of "lazy kings" and proclaimed himself king of the Franks. This happened with the sanction of the pope. In 754, Stephen II (III) personally anointed Pepin to the kingdom, after which the Franks could no longer ignore the demands of the Holy See. In 756, Pepin conquered the central Italian regions from Byzantium - the Duchy of Rome, the Exarchate of Ravenna, Pentapolis and Umbria, transferring them to the papacy. "Pipin's gift" laid the foundation for the Papal State. The capture by Desiderius of part of the papal possessions in 772 forced Charlemagne to undertake a new campaign in Italy. In the summer of 774 Charles took Pavia and crowned himself with the Iron Crown. The kingdom of the Lombards fell. Northern Italy came under the rule of the Carolingians.
In 781, Charlemagne forced Pope Adrian I to crown his infant son Pepin king of Italy, and on Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles himself with the imperial crown.
In the first half of the 9th century, the political map of Italy looked like this: the Kingdom of Italy was located in the north of the Apennine Peninsula. The central regions were occupied by the Papal States. To the south lay the Lombard duchies and the principalities of Spoleto, Benevento, Salerno and Capua, formally recognizing the suzerainty of the emperor of the Franks. Byzantium retained control over Calabria and Puglia, where administrative-territorial units, themes, were formed. Naples, which grew out of the Byzantine duchy, lived its own life, and the trading city-states of Gaeta and Amalfi. In 828, a new power appeared in Italy - the Arabs. They captured Sicily and part of Calabria, forming an emirate there, raided the southern coast of the Apennine Peninsula and even reached Rome.
The Italian kingdom was formally part of the Frankish empire, but the Franks treated Italy as an insignificant outskirts. The Italian crown was partly worn by children, who, even having matured, did not spend much time in their patrimony. As a result, the administration in the kingdom remained practically the same as it was under the Lombards: there was a central office in the capital - Pavia; dukes, counts, bishops and gastalds sat in large cities, exercising power in the localities.
After the death of Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, unrest began in the state of the Franks. Italy first entered the Middle Kingdom of Lothair, and then, together with the imperial crown, went to his son Louis II. The combination of the Italian and imperial crowns became commonplace for that time, and the Italian nobility participated in the Frankish civil strife on the side of one or the other applicant. After the deposition of Charles III Tolstoy in 887, Italy actually broke up into several independent feudal states. The possession of the Italian crown has become a perfect formality. In 952, King Berengar II of Italy recognized himself as a vassal of the German Emperor Otto I, but subsequently rebelled against him. In 961, Otto organized a campaign through the Alps, deposed Berengar II and was crowned with the "iron crown of the Lombards." The Italian kingdom was abolished, and the lands of Northern Italy became part of the Holy Roman Empire, although in fact the influence of the emperors on Italian affairs was very weak.
In the 11th-13th centuries, the north of Italy was a combination of feudal lords, formally in vassalage of the German emperor, and independent communal cities, which in 1167 united into a union - the Lombard League. This period was marked by the struggle between the German emperors and the popes for investiture, that is, for the right to appoint people to church positions. Each of the parties sought to attract more supporters, as a result of which the prototypes of modern parties were formed in Italy: the Guelphs (supporters of the papacy) and the Ghibellines (supporters of the empire). The feudal lords and the urban aristocracy took one side or the other, depending on the understanding of their own interests. In the middle of the XIII century, this struggle ended with the victory of the papacy, and the power of the emperor over Italy became purely nominal.
No less exciting events developed in southern Italy. Back in 999, Norman pilgrims returning from the Holy Sepulcher helped Prince Guemar III of Salerno repel an Arab attack. Since then, the Lombard rulers of southern Italy increasingly began to recruit the Normans. In 1030 Sergius IV, Duke of Naples, granted the Norman Raynulf the hand of his sister and the county of Aversa. Aversa became the first Norman state in Southern Italy. Soon the Normans, led by Wilhelm, nicknamed the Iron Hand, conquered Apulia from the Byzantines. Gradually, the Normans captured all of southern Italy, and by 1091 they cleared Sicily and Malta of the Arabs. In 1059 the power of the Normans was recognized by the pope.
In 1127, Roger II, Count of Sicily, annexed Apulia to his possessions, and on Christmas Day 1030 was crowned King of Sicily by the pope. Thus, unlike the north, where feudal fragmentation reigned, the south of the Apennine Peninsula was a single state.
In 1189 King William II of Sicily died and the Norman dynasty ended. Emperor Henry VI intervened in the struggle for the Sicilian throne, as a result of which Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufen. The emperors hoped to use southern Italy as another springboard to fight the papacy. Fearing this, the popes entered into negotiations with Charles of Anjou, the powerful brother of the French king. Charles invaded Italy, defeated Manfred I of Hohenstaufen and in 1266 was crowned King of Sicily.
The strengthening of the Angevin dynasty displeased Pedro III of Aragon, who also had rights to the Hohenstaufen inheritance. Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction with the power of the French, which resulted in an uprising - the Sicilian Supper, Pedro III landed on the island and on September 4, 1282 was crowned king of Sicily. Since that time, two large monarchies began to coexist in southern Italy: the Sicilian kingdom under the rule of the Aragonese dynasty and the Neapolitan kingdom under the rule of the house of Anjou.
By the beginning of the 14th century, Italy was fragmented and more vulnerable than ever. In the north, formally there was a central imperial rule, but in fact political power was in the hands of cities that resisted attempts to establish centralized control. The central regions of Italy were under the rule of the popes, at that time controlled by the kings of France. In the south, as mentioned above, the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were located. During the XIV century in the cities of Northern Italy there was a process of transfer of political power into the hands of the aristocratic elite. Communes, weakened by civil wars, turned into hereditary dictatorships. The dictators were the seniors - the heads of large aristocratic families: the Medici in Florence, della Torre, Visconti and Sforza in Milan, della Scala in Verona, Gonzaga in Mantua, Malatesta in Rimini, della Rovere in Urbino and so on. The seniors seized power sometimes by force, but more often by gradually and prudently gaining positions. They enjoyed unlimited and unrestrained powers, but were still preoccupied with the legal protection of their regimes, for which they kept a large staff of lawmen from the people's communes.
At the same time, some cities resisted the authoritarian power of the seniors: Venice, Florence, Siena, Luca, Genoa, Perugia, Bologna - oligarchic republics were formed in these seven cities. Here, power was in the hands of not one person or family, but several tens or hundreds of people from the richest families.
By the end of the 14th century, the Apennine Peninsula was dominated by five main states: the Byzantine and Florentine republics, the Duchy of Milan, the Papal State and the Kingdom of Naples, which counterbalanced each other, making further expansion difficult. In 1454, Milan, Naples and Florence concluded the Peace of Lodia, which fixed the balance of power on the peninsula. The ideas of the Peace of Lodia were expanded in the same year by the formation of the Italian League, which also included Venice, and the Pope sanctioned the formation of the League. Other smaller states - Genoa, Siena, Lucca, Mantua and Ferrara - retained formal independence, but in essence were subordinate to five large states.
The basis of the power of the Italian states of the XIV century was trade. Venice had the largest fleet in the Mediterranean. Its possessions were located even outside the Apennine peninsula. The Venetians traded not only in the Mediterranean, but also with Asian countries. Venice competed with Genoa. Banking flourished in the cities of Lombardy. Lombard financiers willingly lent money to the nobility throughout Europe. A powerful industrial sector was created in Florence, aimed at satisfying the growing needs of markets throughout Europe - especially for wool. The golden Florentine coin - the florin, issued in 1252 - quickly became one of the major European currencies.
Culturally, the 14th century marked the beginning of the Renaissance. The fall of the Byzantine Empire led to the flight of Byzantine cultural figures to Western Europe, bringing with them samples of ancient art, already forgotten in Europe. Estates were already formed in the city-republics, which were alien to feudal relations with their hierarchical system of values and medieval church culture. This led to the emergence of humanism - a socio-philosophical movement that considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for evaluating social institutions. Secular centers of science and art began to appear in the cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The rulers of the Renaissance - not only the signors, but also the popes - patronized scientists and artists, thanks to which magnificent works of painting, sculpture and architecture were created in Italy.
From the end of the 15th century, the kings of France began to interfere in Italian affairs, claiming Naples as relatives of Anjou and Milan as relatives of the Visconti. A series of so-called Italian wars began. France, however, gained nothing from these wars. Her only acquisition was the small margraviate of Saluzzo. The wars led to the strengthening of the Habsburgs: Milan, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia became de facto Spanish provinces for a long time, and Tuscany, Genoa and the small states of Northern Italy were obedient to Madrid in everything. The Italian wars led to increased feudal fragmentation in the north of the Apennine Peninsula and the weakening of the Italian states. On the other hand, returning from Italy, French and German soldiers and officers brought the ideals of the Renaissance and humanism to their countries, which served as an impetus for the rapid development of Renaissance culture north of the Alps. Spanish rule in Italy lasted until 1713. It was a period of political, social and intellectual stagnation. The counter-reformation became a significant circumstance. The Inquisition was created, which began the persecution of Italian intellectuals - and this after such a bright flowering of the Renaissance! A short economic boom by the end of the 16th century was replaced by a recession, exacerbated by natural disasters, and led to the impoverishment of the country and an increase in robbery. In the worst situation were the territories ruled by the Spaniards. The viceroys of Naples and Sicily used their possessions as a cash cow, which led to a series of revolts in the south of the Apennine Peninsula. The crisis affected Tuscany and even the Papal States, despite the accession of Ferrara, Urbino and Castro. In a slightly better position was Venice, although it lost its hegemony in the Mediterranean trade, Savoy and Genoa, which grew rich in banking operations.
During the 17th century, the power of Spain was weakening, but the threat from France was growing. By the end of the 17th century, Northern Italy again found itself between two fires. After the death of Charles II in 1700, the War of the Spanish Succession began and raged for thirteen years. Its main result, recorded by the Utrecht Peace Treaty of 1713, was the complete elimination of Spanish rule on the Apennine Peninsula: Naples, Milan, Sardinia and Mantua went to the Austrian Habsburgs, and Sicily, Montferrat and the western part of the Duchy of Milan were annexed to Savoy. However, this state of affairs did not last long. Already in 1720, the House of Savoy exchanged Sicily for Sardinia (the Kingdom of Sardinia was formed). In 1734, the Spaniards recaptured Sicily and Naples. In 1737, Tuscany passed to the Lorraine branch of the Habsburgs. This situation lasted until the end of the 18th century - until Napoleon's invasion of Italy.
The 18th century was characterized by the extreme stratification of Italian society. Large aristocrats, who owned about half of all land, led an emphatically luxurious and brilliant life, while the vast majority of the population - both in the city and in the countryside - owned almost nothing and lived in poverty and misery.
The Age of Enlightenment came to Italy from France. Italian intellectuals united into a fairly cohesive force that agitated for reforms and transformations. They managed to captivate with their ideas the Tuscan and Lombard Habsburgs, who carried out administrative and economic reforms in their possessions.
The relatively calm course of events was interrupted by the French Revolution of 1789. Fermentation in Italy was quickly suppressed, but revolutionary France intervened in the affairs of the Apennines. In 1792 she declared war on Piedmont and in 1793 on Naples. Austria took the side of the latter, but in 1795 the talented General Bonaparte led the French army. Thanks to skillful actions, he captured Piedmont (which was annexed directly to France), Milan, Modena, Bologna and Ferrara, on whose territory the Cisalpine Republic was created, which in 1802 was transformed into the Italian Republic. Napoleon Bonaparte became its president. On the territory of Tuscany, the puppet kingdom of Etruria was created. Peace was made with Naples. Venice, Istria and Dalmatia remained under Austrian rule.
In 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of France, and all French possessions in Italy were united into the Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon was crowned with an iron Lombard crown, and made his stepson Eugene Beauharnais Viceroy. In 1805, Venice, Istria and Dalmatia were captured. A puppet principality was created on the territory of Lucca. In 1806, Ferdinand IV of Naples was deposed for non-compliance with the terms of the peace treaty, and the emperor's brother Joseph Bonaparte was put in his place. In 1806, Etruria was annexed to France under a regent. In 1809, the pope was deprived of secular power; Rome was proclaimed the second city of the empire.
Italy was divided into three parts: the northwestern regions were annexed directly to France; a puppet kingdom of Italy was formed from the northeastern regions; the Neapolitan kingdom in the south was also under Napoleon's control. Only the islands remained under the rule of the old dynasties - Sicily and Sardinia. Under Napoleon, arbitrariness and extortion reigned in Italy; the occupation troops ravaged the country. At the same time, the period of French occupation also had favorable consequences: feudal law fell, constitutional institutions were introduced, and legislative reforms were carried out. But most importantly, the idea of Italian unity was born during this period.
The Treaty of Paris in 1814 and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 actually returned the borders of the Italian states to the state of 1792 (with minor changes) and returned the exiled monarchs to their thrones. The police authorities in all the states of Italy were in the closest alliance with each other. Strict censorship was resumed. French civil law was abolished, and the old one, built on the patronage of the upper classes, was restored; cruel punishments were restored in criminal law, at least on paper, up to and including quartering and wheeling. The system of taxes became very burdensome for the masses of the population. Robbery, almost eradicated in the previous period, again intensified, and the police, adapted only to pursue political conspiracies, were powerless against it.
The idea of the unity of Italy, which arose during the time of French rule, led to the beginning of the national liberation movement of the Italian people against foreign domination, for the unification of the country. In historiography, it was called Risorgimento, that is, "revival, renewal", by analogy with Rinascimento - the Renaissance.
The south of Italy was the first to rise, where the revolutionary movement of the Carbonari spread. The Spanish Revolution of 1820 immediately spread to Naples, and an uprising broke out there too. As soon as it was suppressed, a rebellion began in Piedmont. Following this, unrest began in the petty duchies and even in the Papal States. All rebellions were suppressed by the forces of the Habsburgs. The reaction period of 1831-1848 began. At this time, the center of the Italian national liberation movement shifted to Piedmont. In French Marseille, located near the border with Piedmont, the writer and thinker Giuseppe Mazzini created a secret society called "Young Italy". The Young Italians launched a political agitation, published a magazine of the same name. However, their attempt to stage a coup in Piedmont in 1834 failed.
Cultural figures in Italy itself - writers, poets, composers - also called for the unification of the country. Their political views varied from extremely radical to very moderate, but the works they created on patriotic themes served one purpose - the promotion of national unity. Thus, by the mid-1840s, an impressive patriotic movement had formed in Italy, uniting the middle class, the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy. The patriots did not have any agreed position on the future structure of a united Italy and did not enjoy the support of the masses, but their appearance was already a step forward.
The collapse of the feudal system, the emergence of capitalism led to the emergence of a large-scale socio-economic crisis. The archaic system of land tenure and land use required reforms. Customs on the borders of petty kingdoms and duchies hindered the development of industry. Italy demanded change. Oddly enough, the Papal States were the first to be reformed. Elected in 1846 as Pope Pius IX was a supporter of progress. Censorship was softened, the idea of creating a customs union with Piedmont and Tuscany was put forward. His example was followed by the Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold III, King Charles Albert of Sardinia, as well as the rulers of Parma, Modena and Lucca.
By the beginning of 1848, the struggle for reform began to develop into a revolutionary movement. The Italian patriots advocated the expulsion of Austrian troops, the destruction of pro-Austrian monarchies and the unification of all Italian states around Piedmont.
The revolution began in Sicily in January 1848, despite the Constitution granted by Ferdinand II. Very soon, the unrest spread to Tuscany, Sardinia, Piedmont and the Papal States. Republics were proclaimed in a number of Italian cities. Austria was forced to send troops to Italy. By August 1849, the rebellions in all Italian states were suppressed. The only result of the revolution of 1848-1849 was the preservation of the Constitution and Parliament in Piedmont.
The suppression of the revolution was followed by a period of reaction. Severe persecution of the patriots began. Tuscany and Romagna were occupied by Austria. French troops were stationed in Rome. Church reaction began. The influence of the Jesuits grew. Pius IX from the "spiritual leader" of the reformers turned into their worst enemy. The least reaction was felt in the Sardinian kingdom. They managed to save the Constitution and Parliament thanks to the activities of moderate liberals led by Camillo Cavour. Having become prime minister, Cavour contributed to the development of industry, railways, and capitalist agriculture, thanks to which Piedmont progressed faster than the rest of the Italian states. Cavour was convinced of the need for the speedy liberation of Italy from the Austrian invaders, but was opposed to revolutionary methods. For these purposes, he went for a rapprochement with France, which intended to oust Austria from Italy and establish its hegemony in the Apennines. Cavour also agreed to the creation by the liberal democrats of the "Italian National Society" headed by the popular figures of the revolution of 1848-1849, Daniele Manin and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
The war with Austria began on April 26, 1859. The Allies were successful. The Austrians left Lombardy and Romagna. Pro-Austrian monarchs were overthrown in Tuscany, Parma and Modena. The successes of the allied troops led to the rise of the national movement in the center of Italy. This threatened to disrupt the plans of Napoleon III to establish French domination in Italy, and on July 11 a truce was concluded with Austria in Villafranca.
The Truce of Villafranca caused an outburst of indignation throughout Italy. The patriotic forces were determined to prevent the return of deposed monarchs. The generals of the Piedmontese army took over the troops in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and Romagna. In April 1860, an uprising broke out in Sicily - the last refuge of the Bourbons in Italy. The Piedmontese revolutionaries, despite the opposition of Cavour, gathered and armed a detachment of a thousand volunteers under the command of Garibaldi, and sent it to Palermo on two ships.
The legendary Garibaldian epic began. With the support of the peasants in the summer of 1860, Garibaldi liberated Sicily, landed on the mainland and began a campaign to the north. Soldiers of the Neapolitan army surrendered by the thousands. Already on September 7, the Garibaldians took Naples. Garibaldi's army already numbered 50 thousand people. They were going to go to liberate Rome and Venice. Garibaldi believed that the issue of joining the South of Italy to Piedmont should be postponed until the country was completely liberated and the Constituent Assembly was convened. However, the liberal monarchists were afraid of the further strengthening of the revolutionary republican army. At their request, France occupied the Papal States. On the side of the Piedmontese liberals, the large landowners of the south, who suffered from the decrees of Garibaldi, who distributed the land to the peasants, came forward. The dictatorship of Garibaldi was abolished. The offended revolutionary hero left for the small island of Caprera that belonged to him.
In the autumn of 1860, Naples, Sicily, Umbria and Marche were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia during hastily held plebiscites. Thus, by the end of 1860, almost all of Italy, with the exception of Venice and Lazio, was united. On March 17, 1861, the All-Italian Parliament, which met in Turin, announced the creation of the Italian Kingdom, headed by the Piedmontese King Victor Emmanuel II.
The unification of the country was accompanied by the unification of legislation, the judicial, monetary and customs systems, the system of weights and measures, and taxation. This opened the way for the economic rapprochement of disunited territories. Thanks to the rapid construction of railways, the main regions of Italy were interconnected.
However, the united Italy faced a lot of problems. On June 6, 1861, Cavour died, and less talented people came to power. The finances of most provinces were in disarray. The peasantry of the south rebelled, dissatisfied with the fact that the land remained in the hands of the nobles. The country was flooded with gangs of robbers, who were supported by the Roman clergy and the Bourbonists.
Despite the problems, the unification of the Italian lands continued. In 1866, despite the failure in the war with Austria, Venice was annexed to Italy. In 1870, due to the outbreak of war with Prussia, the French were forced to withdraw their corps from Rome. Italian government troops took the Eternal City and deprived the pope of secular power. According to the plebiscite held on October 3, 1870, Rome was annexed to Italy, and on January 26, 1871, it was proclaimed the capital. Of the original Italian lands, only Savoy, Nice, Trieste and South Tyrol remained under the rule of foreigners.
So, Italy was united, but at the same time it remained extremely heterogeneous in its structure. The contrast between the relatively prosperous north, where the industrial revolution began, and the agrarian, impoverished south, between city and country, was too obvious. In general, Italy was a backward country (many centuries of fragmentation affected), and even in the cities of the north, the average standard of living was low. The deputies of parliament and members of the government were concerned, for the most part, with how to stay in power without bearing responsibility for the situation in the country. King Umberto I was not a talented politician and ignored the problems of the country, considering them "incurable traits of the Italian character." Italy's attempt to become a colonial power only led to unnecessary human and financial losses - there was no benefit from the barren desert lands in Somalia, Ethiopia and Libya.
In this situation, the socialist and nationalist movements began to gain popularity first. The Nationalists dragged Italy into the First World War. Italy was lucky that she initially sided with the future winners - the Entente countries, but her acquisitions following the war were more than modest - Istria and South Tyrol were torn away from Austria.
Frustration with the outcome of the war and the government's inability to cope with its economic consequences in the form of unemployment and inflation led to riots organized by right-wing forces with the support of influential sections of the population. Nationalists and "patriots" organized detachments ("fascis"), which began to intimidate and persecute the socialists. The fascists, as the members of these groups were called, participated in the suppression of strikes and, in doing so, established control over essential government services. Eventually, on October 29, 1922, King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a government.
With the full connivance of the ruling circles, big business, the army, police, judges, officials and the church, a totalitarian fascist regime was established in Italy, headed by the "Duce" (leader) Benito Mussolini. King Victor Emmanuel III was relegated somewhere to the background or even the third plan. Opposition parties were banned, rights and freedoms were restricted. By the end of the 1920s, the Nazis managed to achieve some economic recovery through privatization, the cessation of state regulation, and cuts in wages and taxes, which facilitated the final liquidation of the liberal state. However, the global financial crisis of the 1930s brought these achievements to naught.
In foreign policy, the famous "Axis" was formed - the union of Germany and Italy. Mussolini realized that Italy was not yet ready for war, but Hitler managed to drag his ally into World War II. The Italians easily captured Albania and part of Yugoslavia, but in clashes with more serious opponents, the Italian army again demonstrated poor training and low morale.
By 1943, the situation in Italy had become extremely difficult. On July 25, 1943, the Great Fascist Council, with the consent of the king, dismissed Mussolini. The new government made peace with the allies and allowed them to land in Italy. However, the Germans kidnapped Mussolini and took him to the north of the country, where the Italian Social Republic was formed. Italy was again divided, and once again became the scene of a battle for foreign powers. With fighting, the allies moved north, where the anti-fascist partisan detachments of the Resistance were operating. In 1945, by the joint actions of the Anglo-American troops and the resistance movement, Italy was liberated.
In May 1946, the elderly king, who had stained himself with inaction during the time of Mussolini, and at the end of the war completely fled to Egypt, abdicated in favor of his son Umberto. However, the fate of the monarchy was sealed. Following a referendum held on June 2, 1946, the King
Italy, a state in southern Europe, located on the Apennine Peninsula with the adjacent part of the mainland and neighboring islands. The ancient history of Italy merges with the history of Rome, which subjugated it in the 4th-3rd century BC. In 476, Italy fell under the rule of the Herulian leader Odoacer, from 493 to 553 it was part of the Ostrogothic kingdom, in the VIII-IX centuries - as part of the Lombard state; from the middle of the 10th century it was part of the Holy Roman Empire, at the same time it was divided into small state formations and city republics. This fragmentation of Italy into several states made her the prey of foreign conquerors (mainly the Spaniards and the French). In 1859-1870, Italy united into one sovereign state.
Emperors and Kings in Italy (Carolingians)
The Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Italy in 774. Further kings of Italy were his sons and their heirs.
Carloman (King of the Lombards) 774
Pepin (King of Italy) 781-810
Bernhard (King of Italy) 811-817
Louis I (King of Italy) 818-840
Lothair (emperor) 820-855
Louis II 855-875
Charles the Bald 875-877
Carloman (King of Italy) 877-879
Charles the Fat (emperor from 881) 879-887
Guy (Duke of Spoletto, Emperor from 891) 889-894
Lambert (emperor and king) 894-898
Arnulf (emperor and king) 896-899
Berengariy I (emperor since 915) 898-924
Louis III (emperor since 901) 899-903/5
Rudolf of Burgundy (King of Italy) 922-926
Hugo (King of Italy) 926-947
Lothair (King of Italy) 947-950
Berengari II (King of Italy) 950-961
In 961, Berengariy II was defeated by the German king Otto I, in 963 he was captured by him and lived in exile in Villa until his death.
In 962, Otto I was crowned imperial in Rome. Italy became an integral part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Italian kingdom
In 1800, in the territories occupied by his troops in Northern Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte created the Cisalpine Republic. In 1802, he renamed it Italian, and in 1805 he made it a kingdom, of which he himself became king. When his son was born in 1811, also named Napoleon, Napoleon I proclaimed him "King of Rome".
Napoleon I Bonaparte 1805-1814
Napoleon II (underage) 1811-1814
Eugene Beauharnais (Viceroy) 1811-1814
In 1814, the troops of the anti-Napoleonic coalition ousted the French from Italy.
Used materials of the book: Sychev N.V. Book of dynasties. M., 2008. p. 232-256.
Read further:
Italy in the first millennium AD e.(chronological table).
Italy in the 11th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 12th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 13th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 14th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 15th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 16th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 20th century(chronological table).
Historical faces of Italy(biographical guide).
Time in the view of the Italians of the XVIII century(book chapters).
States that existed on the Apennine Peninsula:
Tuscany, marquisate, duchy, grand duchy.
Etruria(Etruria), in 1801-1807 a kingdom dependent on France in Italy, images, from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after its capture by the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte. Named after the ancient (from the Etruscans) name of the territory of Tuscany. At the end of 1807, the kingdom of Etruria was abolished and its territory incorporated into the French Empire.
Milan(Lombardy, duchy since 1395), in 1559 the duchy was subordinated to the Spanish crown.
Modena, Ferrara, Reggio(since 1452 - duchy).
Mantova and Montferrat, duchy - from 1530
Parma and Piacenza, the duchy was allocated in 1545 from the Papal States by Pope Paul III for his son Pietro Luigi Farnese.
Savoy, County 1027-1416, Duchy 1416-1713, Kingdom of Sicily 1713-1720, Kingdom of Sardinia 1720-1861, Kingdom of Italy 1861-1946
Southern Italy
By the beginning of the 11th century, southern Italy was fragmented into many possessions. Apulia, Calabria and the Ducat of Naples belonged to Byzantium, Capua, Benevetto and Salerno were Lombard duchies, Sicily was owned by the Arabs.
In the middle of the 11th century, squads of immigrants from the French duchy of Normandy appeared in southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard and his younger brother Roger, who belonged to the Altavilla (or otherwise Gotville) family. Robert Guiscard first captured Apulia and Calabria, and by 1071 completely took over the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy. Roger, starting in 1061, in thirty years conquered Sicily from the Arabs.
Calabria, county and dukedom.
Sicily, County and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Kingdom of Naples.
+ + +
Venice(Republic of Saint Mark), a city in northern Italy near the Adriatic Sea.
Genoa(Republic of Saint George), a city in northwestern Italy; from the 10th to the 18th centuries an independent republic.
Unification of Italy
Orders that existed in Italy
Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Order of Bethlehem
Founded by Pope Pius II to protect the island of Lemnos. But after the final conquest of the island by the Turks in 1479, the order ceased to exist.
Order of Christian Knights
Founded in Italy in 1619/1623 to fight the Turks and German Protestants, but soon ceased to exist.
Order of Saint Stephen
Founded in 1562 in Florence. Destroyed by Napoleon in 1809.
Order of Saint Mauritius
Existed in Savoy. The hereditary masters were the Dukes of Savoy. In 1572, the Pope attached to the Order of Saint Mauritius a part of the hospital Order of Saint Lazarus. In 1583 the order ceased to exist.
Italy, a state in southern Europe, located on the Apennine Peninsula with the adjacent part of the mainland and neighboring islands. The ancient history of Italy merges with the history of Rome, which subjugated it in the 4th-3rd century BC. In 476, Italy fell under the rule of the Herulian leader Odoacer, from 493 to 553 it was part of the Ostrogothic kingdom, in the VIII-IX centuries - as part of the Lombard state; from the middle of the 10th century it was part of the Holy Roman Empire, at the same time it was divided into small state formations and city republics. This fragmentation of Italy into several states made her the prey of foreign conquerors (mainly the Spaniards and the French). In 1859-1870, Italy united into one sovereign state.
Emperors and Kings in Italy (Carolingians)
The Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Italy in 774. Further kings of Italy were his sons and their heirs.
Carloman (King of the Lombards) 774
Pepin (King of Italy) 781-810
Bernhard (King of Italy) 811-817
Louis I (King of Italy) 818-840
Lothair (emperor) 820-855
Louis II 855-875
Charles the Bald 875-877
Carloman (King of Italy) 877-879
Charles the Fat (emperor from 881) 879-887
Guy (Duke of Spoletto, Emperor from 891) 889-894
Lambert (emperor and king) 894-898
Arnulf (emperor and king) 896-899
Berengariy I (emperor since 915) 898-924
Louis III (emperor since 901) 899-903/5
Rudolf of Burgundy (King of Italy) 922-926
Hugo (King of Italy) 926-947
Lothair (King of Italy) 947-950
Berengari II (King of Italy) 950-961
In 961, Berengariy II was defeated by the German king Otto I, in 963 he was captured by him and lived in exile in Villa until his death.
In 962, Otto I was crowned imperial in Rome. Italy became an integral part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Italian kingdom
In 1800, in the territories occupied by his troops in Northern Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte created the Cisalpine Republic. In 1802, he renamed it Italian, and in 1805 he made it a kingdom, of which he himself became king. When his son was born in 1811, also named Napoleon, Napoleon I proclaimed him "King of Rome".
Napoleon I Bonaparte 1805-1814
Napoleon II (underage) 1811-1814
Eugene Beauharnais (Viceroy) 1811-1814
In 1814, the troops of the anti-Napoleonic coalition ousted the French from Italy.
Used materials of the book: Sychev N.V. Book of dynasties. M., 2008. p. 232-256.
Read further:
Italy in the first millennium AD e.(chronological table).
Italy in the 11th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 12th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 13th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 14th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 15th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 16th century(chronological table).
Italy in the 20th century(chronological table).
(biographical guide).
States that existed on the Apennine Peninsula:
Tuscany, marquisate, duchy, grand duchy.
Etruria(Etruria), in 1801-1807 a kingdom dependent on France in Italy, images, from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after its capture by the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte. Named after the ancient (from the Etruscans) name of the territory of Tuscany. At the end of 1807, the kingdom of Etruria was abolished and its territory incorporated into the French Empire.
Milan(Lombardy, duchy since 1395), in 1559 the duchy was subordinated to the Spanish crown.
Modena, Ferrara, Reggio(since 1452 - duchy).
Mantova and Montferrat, duchy - from 1530
Parma and Piacenza, the duchy was allocated in 1545 from the Papal States by Pope Paul III for his son Pietro Luigi Farnese.
Savoy, County 1027-1416, Duchy 1416-1713, Kingdom of Sicily 1713-1720, Kingdom of Sardinia 1720-1861, Kingdom of Italy 1861-1946
Southern Italy
By the beginning of the 11th century, southern Italy was fragmented into many possessions. Apulia, Calabria and the Ducat of Naples belonged to Byzantium, Capua, Benevetto and Salerno were Lombard duchies, Sicily was owned by the Arabs.
In the middle of the 11th century, squads of immigrants from the French duchy of Normandy appeared in southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard and his younger brother Roger, who belonged to the Altavilla (or otherwise Gotville) family. Robert Guiscard first captured Apulia and Calabria, and by 1071 completely took over the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy. Roger, starting in 1061, in thirty years conquered Sicily from the Arabs.
Calabria, county and dukedom.
Sicily, County and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Kingdom of Naples.
+ + +
Venice(Republic of Saint Mark), a city in northern Italy near the Adriatic Sea.
Genoa(Republic of Saint George), a city in northwestern Italy; from the 10th to the 18th centuries an independent republic.
Unification of Italy
Orders that existed in Italy
Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Order of Bethlehem
Founded by Pope Pius II to protect the island of Lemnos. But after the final conquest of the island by the Turks in 1479, the order ceased to exist.
Order of Christian Knights
Founded in Italy in 1619/1623 to fight the Turks and German Protestants, but soon ceased to exist.
Order of Saint Stephen
Founded in 1562 in Florence. Destroyed by Napoleon in 1809.
Order of Saint Mauritius
Existed in Savoy. The hereditary masters were the Dukes of Savoy. In 1572, the Pope attached to the Order of Saint Mauritius a part of the hospital Order of Saint Lazarus. In 1583 the order ceased to exist.
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She changed the idea of what a ruler should be. Evita Peron and Princess Diana were called her students.
Montenegro is a small mountainous country in the Balkans, freed by VJ from Turkish rule with the help of Russia. Its ruler, the prince, and then King Nikola I Petrovich-Negush, had three sons and countless daughters. All of them - beautiful and clever - were, perhaps, his main reserve in international politics. They were looking for suitors all over Europe - grand dukes, dukes, kings.
The longest reign and the largest kingdom went to Helena. The fate of this princess was amazing. A happy family life and at the same time a dramatic, very ambiguous reign.
Elena, like most of her sisters, was educated at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. Here she had a special status - after all, the goddaughter of the emperor of all Russia. The girl's quarters, which consisted of two rooms, were located not far from the manager's room (always under supervision). Everything for art classes: an easel, a piano ... One problem - she did not like it here, she felt like a bird in a cage.
Get up at 6 in the summer and 7 in the winter. A separate prayer, then a common one - matins, after breakfast - the beginning of classes, after them - lunch and rest, then classes again ... At five o'clock - tea, at six the classes end. And after dinner and fervent prayer at nine in the evening, everyone should be in their chambers. Danilo, Elena's brother, joked that more sisters were drilled in Smolny than he was in the military academy in Vienna.
Sister Milica could hardly make Elena fall in love with reading. There are several notes that it was this Montenegrin princess who had difficulty learning Russian. Yes, and French teachers also suffered from the fact that they could not drive the subtleties of French grammar into Elena's head. But what the young princess loved was medicine. In general, she believed more in the body than in the spirit, being interested in the real world, and not in the esoteric fashion in those days.
Elena had more admirers than the other sisters, and at balls her carnet (a special book where gentlemen signed up for dancing) was always full. And it was because of her that the famous duel between the Serbian prince Arsen Karageorgevich and Karl von Mannerheim took place, in which Karl received numerous injuries while defending the honor of Elena. What is the reason for the duel? Pretty Elena promised Karl two dances, while they had already been promised to Arsen. Arsen was furious and let go of Elena's causticity. She, sharply waving her fan, replied: "I would never allow a rude man what I do not refuse a polite gentleman." And headed for the exit. Arsene, whose face changed with anger, shouted so loudly that everyone in the hall could hear: “Sotte pagsanne!” (French expletive meaning "fool, redneck"). This is an insult, a hint at the peasant origin of the Montenegrin princess. Karl demanded satisfaction from Arsene. After this duel, the princess was ordered to urgently return home, to the capital Cetinj, to wait until passions subsided ... They say that Mannerheim (later the President of Finland) until his death sent Elena a bouquet of fresh roses every year on St. Helena's Day.
So the romantic dreams of the princess were dispelled. So the princess understood: the love of a prince and the love of a simple person are completely different. The love and gallantry of princes in general have a completely different color and taste. When she shared these thoughts with her mother, Princess Milena, she replied with a smile: “If you didn’t skip classes, I would not have thought that this was your own thought.” And yet nature takes its toll - it's time for Elena to fall in love.
Here, to continue the story, you need to be transported to Rome. King Umberto I of Italy had only one son, Victor Emmanuel. Therefore, it was impossible to miss, choosing a bride for him. Umberto's wife, Queen Margherita, even made a long list of European princesses. Montenegrin beauties, “princesses of dry figs,” as they were derisively called, were far from in the first places in it. And yet they were interested. In the autumn of 1894, a high-ranking official was sent to Cetinj, who prepared an extensive report.
So. Victor-Emmanuel, born in 1869, is matched by two unmarried princesses, Helena (1873) and Anna (1874). Only flattering words could be heard about the personal qualities of both princesses (realizing that it was not by chance that the Italian minister peered at them so intently, the girls tried to present themselves in all their glory). They grew up in a quiet and peaceful environment, under the supervision of their mother. They have excellent manners, having inherited from their mother simplicity in behavior, a practical spirit, gentleness of character. And above all (mountain women!) - the cult of fidelity to the family ...
What followed was a comparative description of the two Chernogoroks. Elena was rated as "more serious and wise", and Anna - "more brilliant, but a little frivolous in a youthful way." Then came a detailed description of their physical characteristics, which suffragettes, feminists would certainly compare with the texts accompanying the sale and purchase of thoroughbred horses. Finally, the official described in detail the health of the entire Petrovich-Negush family. He was so meticulous that he even mentioned such things as the problem of the mother of the applicants Princess Milena with a liver and gallstones. A funny detail - in such a detailed report, the real height of the princess was not indicated - 177 centimeters. And this is not surprising, because Victor Emmanuel was as much as 24 centimeters lower! .. But the final decision had to be made by Victor Emmanuel himself, speaking at home - Vittorio.
They first met at a performance by the Phoenix Theater during what is now called the Venice Biennale. And then it was the barely nascent International Art Exhibition of the city of Venice. The first bride-to-be was successful - and the acquaintance continued at the coronation of Nicholas II, where all the aristocracy of the world was present.
The splendor and luxury of the coronation ceremony amazed foreign guests. True, there was also a terrible Khodynskaya crush. But the gala dinner in the Kremlin was not canceled because of her. It was there, sitting next to the front table, that Vittorio met Elena. Of course, they were not placed next to each other by chance. The impression of communicating with Elena was so strong that in the evening the prince wrote in his diary in English (he knew this language perfectly - his nanny was an Englishwoman): "I met her." The conversation continued. And four days later a new entry appeared in the diary: "I made up my mind."
An important role in this novel was played by a fact related to the past of Victor Emmanuel. The fact is that he received the experience of tender passion in communication with the Duchess of Cesarini. Tall, slender, swarthy, dark-haired, she was for many years the love obsession of the young prince. Her resemblance to Elena helped Vittorio quickly decide to marry.
But another factor became almost the main one. The Savoy dynasty, one of the oldest on the continent, was clearly degenerating. For several centuries, the ruling houses of Europe by cross, often closely related marriages have dramatically increased the risk of hereditary diseases. And here the fresh mountain blood of Elena, full of health, was very helpful.
There was, however, still a religious question. It was not possible to insist on marriage without a change of faith. And the Orthodox faith in other languages is called “orthodox” for a reason. But even Rome is worth a mass. The Orthodox subjects of Prince Negush (and Russia too) felt insulted. And Elena's mother, Milena, in protest refused to attend the wedding in Rome.
Elena took all this calmly and tried not to think too much on this topic. In the depths of her soul, at least so her descendants say, the problem of religion did not bother her too much, she believed in humanism, human kindness and hoped that different paths lead to God.
All Rome spoke about the wedding of Helena of Savoy and Victor Emmanuel. About her magnificent wedding dress of heavy white silk embroidered with silver, about orange and lemon flowers scattered on the floor of St. Mary's Basilica. Well, about how the queen mother fainted from stuffiness, and King Umberto fell asleep so soundly that he didn’t even answer his son’s question: “My father, do you allow it? ..”
There was another overlay and a very serious reason for resentment. King Umberto distributed Elena's dowry, which consisted of one hundred thousand lire, to the poor of the capital. And thus - willingly or unwillingly - showed how insignificant this amount is for the Kingdom of Italy. Seeing her father Nikola home to Montenegro, Elena could not help but burst into tears. But neither her husband, nor her father-in-law and mother-in-law ever knew about her insult. The highlight of their honeymoon trip, honeymoon was a vacation on the secluded island of Montecristo (the same one described by Dumas).
And in 1900, a tragedy occurred in the family. The Italian-American anarchist Gaetano Breschi killed the king with four point-blank shots. Victor Emmanuel and Elena ascended the throne. The beauty of Elena, the elegance of her manners became an ongoing topic of conversation in the high-society salons of Italy.
On December 28, 1908, just between Christmas and New Year, Italy and the world were shaken by a now national tragedy. The earthquake and the ensuing tsunami almost completely destroyed the Sicilian city of Messina. Elena worked hard and courageously to help the victims. She also selflessly helped the wounded during the First World War - she worked as a nurse in a hospital, since medicine was her old hobby. The Queen came up with the idea of selling autographed photographs at charity auctions in order to help the victims. And at the end of the war, she offered to sell the treasures of the Italian crown in order to pay off the debts of the war.
Her behavior - a queen, a true mother for the people - has become an example for many generations of rulers, queens, princesses - from Evita Perron to Lady Di. Pope Pius XI in 1937 presented her with the "Golden Rose of Christianity", the highest award of the Catholic Church, intended for women. (And his successor, Pius XII, after Helena's death, called her "lady of charitable mercy.")
And in 1939, three months after the German invasion of Poland, Queen Helena wrote letters to six sovereigns of European neutral nations: Denmark, Holland, Luxembourg, Belgium, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. In them, she called for everything to be done to avoid the tragedy of the growing war. What naivety - did these kingdoms decide something in the politics of that time. Then completely different countries and completely different people ruled the ball in it ...
And here we should turn a little more to the image of the king of Italy - Victor Emmanuel III. He himself gave himself the nickname "The Nutcracker". And not in vain. The fact is that a cute child has grown into a rare ugly young man. The problem is not even small growth. Unlike his father, who was also short but imposing, there was nothing prepossessing, handsome, strong, truly royal in Vittorio's caricature appearance.
During the First World War, Italy, despite close contacts with Germany and Austria-Hungary, remained neutral for some time. And then ... entered the war on the side of the Entente! And the brutal defeat began. True, thanks to strong allies, the country was on the side of the winners. But after the war, the economy was in decline, and the country became restless.
Victor Emmanuel was not a strong enough ruler to resist Mussolini and his fascist party. So the country began the world's first experiment in building a "corporate fascist state." In fact, the king was removed from power. In reality, the country was ruled by Duce Mussolini, and Victor Emmanuel was only good enough to put his head under another crown - the emperor of Ethiopia, the king of Albania ...
Sometimes the humiliation was indicative, in public. Here the chancellor and Fuhrer of the "Third Reich" Adolf Hitler was especially zealous. In violation of all protocols, he got into the carriage without waiting for the king. Then the carriage with Mussolini and Hitler rode in front, accepting the congratulations of the people, and Victor Emmanuel III, like a poor relative, trailed behind.
And when in 1938, under the pressure of its new ally, Germany, Italy adopted humiliating racial laws, the king was silent again, unable to find the strength to object to the ruling party ... He decided to revolt only on July 24, 1943, when, together with the Great Fascist Council, he removed Mussolini from power and began negotiations with the allies. The vengeful Nazis arrested the daughter of Vittorio and Elena, Mafalda, and her husband, Prince Philip of Hesse. (Philip survived, but Mafalda died a year later in Buchenwald.)
At that moment, the country, in fact, split into two parts. The north was occupied by the Nazis, returning to power Mussolini (by that time - a helpless puppet), and the king went south to the allies. This split and flight from Rome, like other sins, the people did not forgive their monarch. To save the dynasty, Victor Emmanuel in 1946 left the throne to his son, Umberto II. But he was king for only a month. In a referendum, the Italians abandoned the monarchy - and the country became a republic.
