Palace coups of the 18th century. Educational portal - everything for a student of law What palace coups took place in the 18th century

The Romanovs are a female dynasty

The royal dynasty of the Romanovs in the 17th century was predominantly a female dynasty. The number of children was large: the first Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich, had 10 children, his son Alexei Mikhailovich had 16. At the same time, infant mortality occupied a significant percentage of the number of births, although it decreased over time. But most importantly, more girls were born than boys (by the way, an interesting pattern existed in the Romanov family - the birth of four girls in a row in one family).

For men, life expectancy was lower than for women. So, of the Romanov tsars in the 17th century, no one overcame the 50-year milestone: Mikhail Fedorovich lived for 49 years, Alexei Mikhailovich - 46, Fedor Alekseevich did not live up to 21 years, Ivan Alekseevich lived for 29 years. By today's standards, all the tsars of the Romanov dynasty in the 17th century were relatively young or mature, but by no means old people. The life expectancy of the princesses fluctuates between 42 (Princess Natalya Alekseevna) and 70 (Princess Tatyana Mikhailovna) years. However, only two princesses did not live to be 50 years old - Natalya Alekseevna and Sofya Alekseevna (she lived 46 years), most of them crossed the 50-year mark. Physically, the women of the Romanov family were, apparently, much stronger than men.

Despite the presence of a large number of young women, the Romanov dynasty was in absolute international genealogical isolation. An insurmountable obstacle stood in the way of dynastic marriages with foreign ruling families. The Russian tsar (or tsarevich) could marry a person of lower status (a “simple” noblewoman), thereby elevating her. The princess, on the other hand, could not marry a person below her in status - therefore, only an equal marriage was possible. In this case, the groom had to be Orthodox (and there were almost no other Orthodox kingdoms except Russia) or convert to Orthodoxy before marriage and stay in Russia.

Mikhail Fedorovich made an attempt to marry his eldest daughter Irina to the natural son of the Danish king, Duke Voldemar, but the question of the groom's conversion to Orthodoxy turned out to be the stumbling block against which all plans were shattered. This unsuccessful attempt, apparently, discouraged the Romanovs from looking for other suitors for their princesses - be that as it may, until 1710 not a single princess from the Romanov family ever married, and most of them lived to death in the royal chamber unmarried virgins (the opinion that they massively took monastic vows is not true, in fact, such cases were isolated).

Safe marriages to noblewomen

Only once, the very first, the Romanovs tried to intermarry with the Russian aristocracy - the princes Dolgorukov, but this first marriage of Mikhail Fedorovich was very short-lived. Subsequently, the Romanovs became related to the "ordinary", not very noble nobility, which existed far from palace intrigues.

The choice of a bride from, as they say, "broad strata of the noble masses" probably symbolized the connection of the royal family with their subjects, with the then "society", from where the Russian queens came from. In the 17th century, the Romanovs became related to the nobles Streshnevs, Miloslavskys, Naryshkins, Grushetskys, Apraksins, Saltykovs and Lopukhins. Subsequently, many relatives of the queens, even very distant ones, such as, for example, Pyotr Andreevich Tolstoy Petr Andreevich Tolstoy(1645-1729) - associate of Peter the Great, statesman and diplomat, active privy councillor. or Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev(1686-1750) - Russian historian, geographer, economist and statesman; author of "History of Russia". Founder of Yekaterinburg, Perm and other cities. occupied important places in the public life of the country. In other words, the matrimonial policy of the royal dynasty remained deeply peculiar.

How Peter I inherited the throne

After the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the struggle of two branches of the Romanov family for the throne was clearly revealed. The senior branch was the descendants of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, with Tsarina Maria Ilyinichnaya (Miloslavskaya), the youngest - the descendants from his second marriage, with Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna (Naryshkina). Since the only man in the senior branch, Tsarevich Ivan Alekseevich, was of little ability, and the only man in the younger branch, Tsarevich Pyotr Alekseevich, reached only ten years of age, relatively young women of the royal family came to the forefront of political life - the princess Sofya Alekseevna, who at that time was 24 years old, and her stepmother, Tsaritsa Natalya Kirillovna, at the age of 30 years.

As you know, the victory in the events of 1682 remained with Tsarevna Sophia, who actually became the real ruler under two tsars - Ivan and Peter. The dual kingdom situation was unique in Muscovite Rus', although it had some basis in the earlier tradition of the Rurikids and the more distant dynastic tradition of Byzantium. In 1689, young Peter Alekseevich was able to remove Princess Sophia from power, and after the death of his brother Ivan in 1696, he remained the sovereign sovereign of Russia. Thus began a new era in the history of the country and in the history of the Romanov dynasty.

In the 18th century, the royal dynasty met in the following composition: two men (Tsar Peter Alekseevich and his ten-year-old son and heir Alexei Petrovich) and fourteen (!) Women - three queens, two of them widowed (Marfa Matveevna, widow of Fyodor Alekseevich, and Praskovya Feodorovna, widow of Ivan Alekseevich) and one who was "out of work" and tonsured a nun (Peter's first wife, Evdokia Fedorovna) and eleven princesses - the seven sisters of the king (six consanguineous, including Sofya Alekseevna imprisoned in a monastery, and one relative; almost all of them left from the normal childbearing age for that time), one aunt of the tsar (Tatiana Mikhailovna, the last of the children of Mikhail Fedorovich) and three nieces of the tsar (daughters of Ivan Alekseevich and Praskovia Fedorovna). Accordingly, only in relation to the last three women could one hope for marriages and the continuation of offspring. Due to this situation, the royal family was under a certain threat. Peter I carried out fundamental changes in dynastic politics and changed the dynastic situation itself.

An extraordinary phenomenon was the actual divorce of the tsar and his second marriage to a rootless native of Livonia, Marta Skavronskaya, who in Orthodoxy received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. The marriage was concluded in 1712, while the spouses had by that time two premarital daughters (who survived among others who died in infancy) - Anna (born in 1708) and Elizabeth (born in 1709). They became "married", which, however, did not remove the question of the legality of their origin. Subsequently, Peter and Catherine had several more children, but they all died in infancy or childhood. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were no hopes for continuation of the family in the male line from the second marriage of the tsar (emperor).

Peter I

Three dynastic marriages, breakthrough to the West

A breakthrough phenomenon was the conclusion of marriages with representatives of foreign sovereign dynasties. This turned out to be possible thanks to a tolerant attitude towards the issue of religion - at first it was not even required that one of the spouses convert to the faith of another. A breakthrough into Europe also meant the recognition of the royal dynasty as a European dynasty, and this could not happen without appropriate matrimonial unions.

The first foreign marriage among the Romanovs was the marriage of Princess Anna Ioannovna (niece of Peter I and future Russian Empress) with Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Courland, concluded in 1710. It was of great geopolitical importance, since Courland was a prominent Baltic state that played a significant role in this region. The borders of Russia directly came into contact with the borders of Courland after the annexation of Livonia as a result of the Northern War. Despite the fact that the duke died two and a half months after the wedding, Anna, remaining the Dowager Duchess of Courland, at the behest of Peter went to her new homeland, where she lived for almost twenty years (note that she remained Orthodox).

The second marriage, concluded under Peter, was of even greater dynastic significance. In 1711, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, who was the heir to the throne, married in Europe Charlotte Christina Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (neither the bridegroom nor the bride changed their religion). The most significant aspect of this marriage was that the bride's sister, Elizabeth Christina, was the wife of the Austrian prince Charles, who in the same 1711 became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation under the name of Charles VI (it was to his brother-in-law that Alexei Petrovich later fled) .

The Holy Roman Empire was the leading and most status state of the then European world. Parenting with its rulers (albeit through property) put Russia in the rank of leading European countries and strengthened its status in the international arena. The heir to the Russian throne became the brother-in-law of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and the future sovereigns found themselves in direct kinship (this was actually the case - Peter II was the cousin of the future Empress Maria Theresa; however, they ruled at different times and Peter did not leave offspring). So, thanks to the marriage of Tsarevich Alexei, the Russian dynasty intermarried with the Habsburgs.

The third dynastic marriage was concluded in 1716: Peter's niece Ekaterina Ivanovna married Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The territory of this state occupied the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, and this union further strengthened Russia's position in the Baltic region. Finally, after the death of Peter, the previously prepared marriage of the eldest daughter of the Tsar Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich was concluded. Holstein was the northernmost Germanic duchy, bordering the Kingdom of Denmark and also overlooking the Baltic Sea. However, an important point was that Karl Friedrich was the mother's nephew of the Swedish king Charles XII, which means that his descendants could claim the Swedish throne. And so it happened: Anna Petrovna's son, Karl Peter, named after Charles XII and Peter the Great, was for some time considered the heir to the Swedish throne. Thus, under favorable circumstances, the descendants of Peter I, that is, representatives of the Romanov dynasty, could take the Swedish throne.

So Peter the Great covered almost the entire Baltic region with dynastic marriages. To the southwest of the territory of the Russian Empire was the duchy of Courland, where his niece ruled. Farther west, the southern coast of the Baltic Sea was occupied by the Duchy of Mecklenburg, which was ruled by the husband of another niece and where her offspring might subsequently rule. Further, the southern part of the Baltic was closed by Holstein, where Peter's son-in-law ruled, whose descendants had rights not only to the Holstein throne, but also to the Swedish one - and the long-time enemy of the Great Northern War could become in the future not only an ally, but also a relative of the Romanovs. And the territory of Sweden (in its Finnish part), as you know, adjoined the lands of the Russian Empire from the north-west. In other words, by entering the Baltic and gaining a territorial foothold there, Peter I simultaneously consolidated Russia dynastically in almost the entire Baltic region. But this did not help solve the main problem - the problem of succession to the throne in Russia itself.

Problems of succession. Tsarevich Alexei. Catherine I

A dramatic collision of Peter's reign was the infamous case of Tsarevich Alexei. Accused of treason, the king's son and heir was imprisoned, where he was interrogated and tortured, as a result of which he died in 1718 (his wife had died even earlier). At that time, in the male generation, the offspring of Peter consisted of two three-year-old children - the grandson (son of Alexei), Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, and the son from Catherine, Tsarevich Peter Petrovich.

It was Peter Petrovich who was declared the next heir to the throne. However, he died before he was four years old, in April 1719. Peter had no more sons from Catherine. From that moment on, the dynastic situation in the royal family became threatening. In addition to Peter and Catherine, the royal family consisted of the grandson and granddaughter of Peter through the son of Alexei - Peter and Natalia, two daughters from Catherine (the third, Natalia, who lived to a relatively adult age, died a little over a month after the death of Peter himself) and three nieces - Catherine , Anna and Praskovya (their mother, Tsaritsa Praskovya Fedorovna, died in 1723). (We do not take into account Peter's first wife, Evdokia Fedorovna, in monasticism Elena, who, of course, played no role.) Anna was in Courland, and Ekaterina Ivanovna left her husband in 1722 and returned to Russia with her daughter Elizabeth Ekaterina Khristina, a Lutheran religion (the future Anna Leopoldovna).

In a situation where the circle of potential heirs is extremely narrow, and the heir himself theoretically may not justify the trust of the monarch (as happened, according to Peter, in the case of Tsarevich Alexei), Peter I made a cardinal decision, issuing in 1722 the Charter on the succession to the throne. According to this document, the sovereign had the right, at his own discretion, to appoint an heir from any of his relatives by means of a will. One might think that in that situation it was the only way to continue the succession of power in the fading Romanov dynasty. The former order of succession to the throne from father to eldest son was abolished, and the new one became, contrary to the wishes of its establisher, one of the factors in the frequent change of power on the Russian throne, which in historiography was called the “epoch of palace coups”.

But Peter I did not have time to use his right of will. The famous legend that he allegedly wrote before his death: “Give everything back,” and to whom, he did not have time to finish, is a fiction. At the time of his death in 1725, the only heir in the male line was his grandson Peter Alekseevich, nine years old. In addition to him, the widow of Peter Ekaterina Alekseevna made up the Romanov dynasty; their daughters are Anna, who was at that time the bride, and Elizabeth; three nieces, one of whom was in Courland, and two in Russia (one with her daughter), as well as Peter's granddaughter, Natalya Alekseevna (she would die in 1728 during the reign of her younger brother Peter II). Perhaps, anticipating the difficulties in the event of his death, back in 1724, Peter crowned his wife Catherine as empress, giving her the absolutely legal status of empress consort. However, by the beginning of 1725, Ekaterina Alekseevna had lost Peter's confidence.

There were two possible contenders for the throne - Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Catherine was supported mainly by Peter's associates, primarily Menshikov; Petra - representatives of the old boyar families from the royal environment, such as the princes Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, Repnin. The intervention of the guards decided the outcome of the confrontation, and Catherine I was proclaimed empress.

The era of palace coups

Catherine I (1725-1727)

Catherine's family directly consisted of two daughters - Anna, who married the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and unmarried Elizabeth. There remained the direct heir of Peter I in the male line - Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich. In addition to him, the royal family included: his older sister Natalya Alekseevna and three nieces of Peter I - the daughters of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, one of whom was outside Russia. The potential heir was Peter Alekseevich (there was even a plan to "reconcile" the two lines of descendants of Peter I - the marriage of Peter Alekseevich to Elizaveta Petrovna).

At the insistence of Menshikov, who planned the marriage of Peter to his daughter Maria, on behalf of Catherine I, shortly before her death, a testament was signed - a will, according to which Peter Alekseevich became the heir to the throne. In the event of his childless death, Anna Petrovna and her descendants, then Elizaveta Petrovna and her possible descendants, then Pyotr Alekseevich's older sister Natalya Alekseevna and her possible descendants, followed. Thus, this document for the first time, due to actual circumstances, assumed the transfer of rights to the throne through the female line.

It is significant that the throne was assigned only to the descendants of Peter I, and the offspring of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich were excluded from the line of succession to the throne. In addition, it provided for the exclusion from the order of succession of persons of a non-Orthodox religion, as well as those who occupied other thrones. In connection with the infancy of the heir, his reign was originally to be held under the tutelage of the Supreme Privy Council - the highest state body in the empire, created in 1726. After the death of Catherine I in May 1727, Peter II was proclaimed emperor in accordance with her will.

Peter II (1727-1730)

Shortly after the accession to the throne of Peter II, the eldest daughter of Peter I and Catherine I, Anna Petrovna, together with her husband, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, left Russia. She died in 1728, having given birth to a son, Karl Peter (the future Peter III). In 1728, the elder sister of Peter II, Natalya Alekseevna, also died childless. There was an acute question about the possible marriage of the emperor. Menshikov's plans to marry Peter to his daughter collapsed as a result of court intrigues. Representatives of the family of princes Dolgorukov had a great influence on the young emperor, at the insistence of which Peter was betrothed to Alexei Dolgorukov's daughter Ekaterina. The young emperor died suddenly of smallpox in January 1730, on the eve of the announced wedding, and did not leave a will. An attempt by the princes Dolgorukov to present a false testament of the emperor in favor of his bride as a genuine one failed. With the death of Peter II, the Romanov family came to an end in the direct male line.

By the time of the death of Peter II, the line of descendants of Peter I was represented only by the grandson of Peter I - the Holstein prince Karl Peter (two years old), who was in the capital of Holstein, Kiel, and the daughter of Peter I, unmarried Elizaveta Petrovna. The line of descendants of Ivan Alekseevich was represented by three daughters of Tsar Ivan and one granddaughter of the Lutheran faith. The circle of potential heirs narrowed to five people.

The issue of succession to the throne was decided at a meeting of the Supreme Privy Council headed by Prince Golitsyn. The testament of Catherine I, according to which, in the event of the childless death of Peter II, the throne should have passed to the offspring of Anna Petrovna (however, the Lutheran religion of Karl Peter could probably serve as an obstacle in this), and then to Elizabeth Petrovna, was ignored. The offspring of Peter I and Catherine I were perceived by members of the Council as premarital, and therefore not entirely legal.

At the suggestion of Prince Golitsyn, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the middle of the three sisters - the daughters of Tsar Ivan (which again contradicted the testament of Catherine I - also because Anna was the regent of the foreign throne) was to become the empress. The main factor in choosing her candidacy was the opportunity to realize the plan of the members of the Supreme Privy Council to limit autocracy in Russia. Under certain conditions (conditions), Anna Ioannovna was invited to take the Russian throne.

Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

At the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna, as you know, rejected plans to limit autocratic power. In 1731 and 1733, her sisters, Praskovya and Ekaterina, died. The only relative of the Empress along the line of Ivan Alekseevich was her niece, the daughter of Catherine's sister, who in the same 1733, shortly before her mother's death, converted to Orthodoxy with the name Anna (Anna Leopoldovna).

The offspring of Peter the Great still consisted of two people - the grandson, Karl Peter, who in 1739 became the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and his daughter, Elizabeth Petrovna. In order to secure the succession to the throne for her line, Anna Ioannovna already in December 1731 signed a manifesto "On taking an oath of allegiance to the Heir to the All-Russian Throne, who will be appointed by Her Imperial Majesty." Thus, the principle of the Petrine Charter on the succession to the throne was fully restored - the exclusively testamentary nature of the Russian succession to the throne.

The future son of Anna Leopoldovna (Anna Ioannovna's niece) was supposed to be the heir. Only in 1739, Anna Leopoldovna was married to Anton Ulrich, Prince of Braunschweig-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, who had been in the Russian service since 1733. His candidacy as the wife of the Empress' niece was lobbied by Austria. Through his mother, Antoinette Amalia, the prince was the nephew of Elizabeth Christina, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and Charlotte Christina Sophia, wife of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Consequently, he was a cousin of both Empress Maria Theresa and Peter II. In addition, the prince's younger sister, Elisabeth Christina, had been the wife of the Prussian heir to the throne, Frederick (later the Prussian King Frederick II the Great) since 1733. In August 1740, the first-born was born to Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich, who was named the dynastic name of this line of the Romanov family - Ivan (John).

A few days before her death, Anna Ioannovna signed a will in favor of Ivan Antonovich, and then appointed the Duke of Courland Biron as regent until he came of age. In the event of the premature death of Ivan Antonovich, who left no offspring, the next potential son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich became the heir.

John VI (1740-1741)

The short reign of Emperor John VI (officially he was called John III, since at that time the account was kept from the first Russian tsar, Ivan the Terrible; later it began to be kept from Ivan Kalita) was marked by the quick elimination and arrest of Biron as a result of a conspiracy organized by Field Marshal Munnich. Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed ruler under the young emperor. In July 1741, Ivan Antonovich's sister Ekaterina was born. On November 25, 1741, Ivan Antonovich was overthrown from the throne as a result of a coup led by the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth Petrovna.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, the "Brunswick family" - Anna Leopoldovna, Anton Ulrich, John Antonovich and their other children (Catherine and later born Elizabeth, Peter and Alexei) were imprisoned and exiled (Anna Leopoldovna died in 1746). The only heir to the unmarried Empress was her nephew, Duke Karl Peter of Holstein. In 1742, he arrived in St. Petersburg, where in November of that year he converted to Orthodoxy with the name Pyotr Fedorovich and was officially declared heir to the throne. In 1745, Peter Fedorovich married Ekaterina Alekseevna (before the adoption of Orthodoxy, Sophia Frederick Augustus), the daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst. By mother, Catherine also came from the family of the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp and was brought to her husband by a second cousin. Catherine's maternal uncle in 1743 became the heir to the Swedish throne, and then the Swedish king, and his son, the Swedish king Gustav III, was Catherine's cousin. Another uncle was once the groom of Elizabeth Petrovna, but died of smallpox on the eve of the wedding. From the marriage of Peter Fedorovich and Ekaterina Alekseevna in 1754, a son was born - Pavel Petrovich. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, the last representative of the Romanov family proper, in December 1761, Peter Fedorovich became emperor under the name of Peter III.

Peter III (1761-1762) and Catherine II (1762-1796)

The unpopular Emperor Peter III was overthrown on June 28, 1762 in a coup led by his wife, who became Empress Catherine II of Russia.

At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, while trying to free (in accordance with a certain order), the former emperor John Antonovich, who was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, was killed. Anton Ulrich died in exile in 1776, and four of his children were sent by Catherine to their aunt, the Danish queen, in 1780 (the last of them, Ekaterina Antonovna, died in Denmark in 1807).

Ekaterina's heir, Pavel Petrovich, was married twice. From the second marriage, with Maria Feodorovna (nee Princess of Württemberg), during the life of Catherine, three sons and six daughters were born (another son was born after Paul I came to the throne). The future of the dynasty was secured. Having become the Russian emperor after the death of his mother in 1796, Paul I adopted a new law on succession to the throne, which established a clear order of succession to the throne in order of seniority in a direct male descending line. With its adoption, the Petrine Charter of 1722 finally lost its force.

Introduction

1. Palace coups of the 18th century

1.1 First coups. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

1.3 "The idea of ​​the leaders"

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Conclusion

The era of palace coups, as is usually called in Russian historiography, the time from the death of Peter I in 1725 to the accession to the throne of Catherine II in 1762. From 1725 to 1761, the widow of Peter Catherine I (1725-1727), his grandson Peter II (1727-1730), his niece the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) and her sister's grandson baby Ivan Antonovich (1740) visited the Russian throne -1741), his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761). This list is closed by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna, the paternal grandson of the Swedish King Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Peter I, Duke of Holstein Peter III. “These people had neither the strength nor the desire to continue or destroy the work of Peter; they could only spoil it” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

What was the essence of the era of palace coups? Historians pay attention to two important facts. On the one hand, it was a reaction to the stormy reign of Peter I, his grandiose transformations. On the other hand, the post-Petrine period formed a new nobility and palace coups in the 18th century. carried out by the noble aristocracy in the interests of their class. Their result was the growth of noble privileges and the intensification of the exploitation of the peasants. Under these conditions, individual attempts by the government to soften the serf regime could not be successful, and thus, palace coups, strengthening serfdom, contributed to the crisis of feudalism.

The purpose of this work is to highlight all the palace coups of the 18th century and identify their causes, as well as to assess the transformations of Catherine II in the era of "enlightened absolutism".

This work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total amount of work is 20 pages.

The first coups took place already at the end of the 17th century, when, after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, supporters and relatives of Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna achieved the election of the youngest of his brothers, Pyotr Alekseevich, to the throne, bypassing the elder Ivan. In essence, this was the first palace coup that took place peacefully. But two weeks later, Moscow was shaken by the Streltsy rebellion, most likely initiated by the relatives of Tsarevich Ivan by his mother, the Miloslavskys. After the bloody reprisals against the participants in the first coup, both Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings, and the real power was in the hands of their elder sister, Princess Sophia. It is significant that this time, to achieve their goals, the conspirators used military force - archers, who were the police support of power. However, Sophia could formally rule only as long as her brothers remained children. According to some reports, the princess was preparing a new coup, intending to proclaim herself an autocratic queen. But in 1689, taking advantage of the rumor about the archers' campaign against Preobrazhenskoye, Peter fled to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and soon gathered significant forces there. Their core was made up of his amusing regiments, which later became the basis of the regular army, its guards, which played an important role in almost all subsequent palace coups. The open confrontation between sister and brother ended with the arrest of Sophia and her exile to a monastery.

1.2 Revolutions after the death of Peter the Great. Menshikov and Dolgoruky

Peter the Great died in 1725 without leaving an heir and before he could implement his decree of 1722, according to which the tsar had the right to appoint his own successor. Among those who could claim the throne at that time were the grandson of Peter I - the young tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, the wife of the late tsar - Ekaterina Alekseevna and their daughters - princesses Anna and Elizabeth. It is believed that Peter I was going to leave the throne to Anna, but then changed his mind and therefore crowned (for the first time in Russian history) his wife Catherine. However, shortly before the death of the king, the relationship of the spouses deteriorated sharply. Each of the applicants had their supporters.

Companions of Peter, new nobles A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, P.A. Tolstoy, F. Prokopovich advocated the transfer of the throne to the wife of the late emperor - Catherine (Martha Skavronskaya), a nobleman from the old boyar families D.M. Golitsyn, Dolgoruky, Saltykov, who were hostile to the "new upstarts", proposed to make the grandson of Peter the Tsar. A.D., who supported Ekaterina, turned out to be the quickest of all. Menshikov. Disputes were interrupted by the appearance of the Guards regiments. Having set up the guards regiments accordingly, he built them under the windows of the palace and thus achieved the proclamation of the queen as an autocratic empress. It was not a pure palace coup, since it was not about a change of power, but about choosing among contenders for the throne, but the very way the issue was resolved anticipated subsequent events.

In her reign, the government was headed by people who had come to the fore under Peter, primarily Menshikov. However, the old nobility also had a great influence, especially the Golitsyns and Dolgoruky. The struggle of the old and new nobles led to a compromise: on February 8, 1726, a Supreme Privy Council of six people headed by Menshikov was created by decree: D.M. Golitsyn, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, A.I. Osterman and Duke Karl Friedrich, husband of Princess Anna Petrovna. The Council, as the new supreme body of power, pushed aside the Senate and began to decide the most important matters. The Empress did not interfere. The Menshikov government, relying on the nobles, expanded their privileges, allowed them to create patrimonial manufactories and trade. The "Verkhovniki" destroyed the Petrine system of local sectoral bodies - its maintenance was expensive, while the government was striving for economy: the poll tax was not fully received, and the ruin of the peasants was reflected in the landowners' economy. The poll tax was reduced, the participation of troops in its collection was canceled. All power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The administration began to cost the state cheaper, but its arbitrariness intensified. There were plans to review other reforms as well.

May 6, 1727 Catherine I died. According to her will, the throne passed to the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter, a tall, healthy 12-year-old boy. Wanting to become regent, Menshikov, during the life of Catherine, betrothed his daughter to Peter II. But now Menshikov was opposed by the "supervisors" - Count A.I. Osterman, tutor of Peter II, and princes Dolgoruky. 17-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was a favorite of Peter II, a friend of his amusements. In September 1727, Peter deprived Menshikov of all his posts and exiled him to Berezov at the mouth of the Ob, where he died in 1729. The Dolgoruky decided to strengthen their influence on Peter by marrying him to the sister of Ivan Dolgoruky. The court and the collegium moved to Moscow, where the wedding was being prepared. But in the midst of preparations on January 18, 1730, Peter II died of smallpox. The male line of the Romanov family was discontinued.

The guards did not participate in the next coup, and Menshikov himself became its victim. It happened already in 1728, during the reign of Peter II. Having concentrated all power in his hands and completely controlling the young tsar, the temporary worker suddenly fell ill, and while he was ill, his political opponents, princes Dolgoruky and A.I.

Osterman, managed to gain influence on the tsar and obtain from him a decree, first on the resignation, and then on the exile of Menshikov to Siberia. This was a new palace coup, because as a result, power in the country passed to a different political force.

According to the will of Catherine I, in the event of the death of Peter II, the throne passed to one of her daughters. But the "supervisors" did not want to lose power. At the suggestion of D.M. Golitsyn, they decided to elect Anna Ioannovna to the throne - the widow of the Duke of Courland, the daughter of Peter I's brother Tsar Ivan, as a representative of the senior line of the Romanov dynasty. Under the conditions of the dynastic crisis, the members of the Supreme Privy Council attempted to limit autocracy in Russia and forced Anna Ioannovna, elected by them to the throne, to sign "conditions". Since the leaders kept their plans secret, their whole undertaking was in the nature of a real conspiracy, and if their plan had succeeded, this would have meant a change in the political system of Russia. But this did not happen, and the decisive role was again played by the guards officers, whom the supporters of the autocracy managed to bring into the palace in time. At the right moment, they declared their adherence to traditional forms of government so decisively that everyone else had no choice but to join them.

Before arriving in Russia, Anna Ioannovna signed "conditions" that limited her power: do not rule without the consent of the "supervisors", do not execute the gentry without trial, do not take away or grant estates without the sanction of the "supervisors", do not get married, do not appoint a successor, his favorite E.I. Biron should not be brought to Russia. Anna Ioannovna made sure that the secret "conditions" became known to everyone. The nobility revolted against the "supreme leaders". During the coronation on February 25, 1730, Anna broke her “conditions”, stepped on them and proclaimed herself a colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment and an autocrat. On March 4, 1730, she abolished the Supreme Privy Council, exiled Dolgoruky and executed D.M. Golitsyn was imprisoned, where he died. The Senate resumed its activity. October 18, 1731. the Cabinet of Ministers and the Office of Secret Investigation Affairs were established, headed by A.I. Ushakov - the secret political police, terrifying with torture and executions. The cabinet of ministers was so powerful that from 1735 the signatures of all three cabinet ministers could replace the signature of Anna herself. Thus, the Cabinet legally became the supreme institution of the state. Anna surrounded herself with Courland nobles, led by E.I. Biron, who was soon elected Duke of Courland, spent her time in amusements, horseback riding, and hunting. Anna made new concessions to the Russian nobles. On December 9, 1730, Peter's decree on single inheritance was canceled. In 1736, the service of the nobility ceased to be indefinite, it was limited to 25 years (from 20 to 45 years). One of the noble sons could stay at home and run the household. For the children of nobles in St. Petersburg, they founded the Land Gentry Corps (cadet), where officers were trained. But the Russian nobles were dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners who occupied all important posts. In 1738 Cabinet Minister A.P. Volynsky and his supporters tried to oppose the "Bironism", but were arrested. In 1740, Volynsky and two of his associates were executed after suffering, the rest had their tongues cut out and sent to hard labor.

Having no heirs, Anna summoned her niece to Russia - the daughter of Catherine's elder sister Anna (Elizaveta) Leopoldovna with her husband Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg Anton-Ulrich and their son, a three-month-old baby Ivan. On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died, and the child was proclaimed emperor Ivan VI, and Biron, according to Anna's will, as regent. Biron's regency caused general discontent, even among the German relatives of Ivan VI.

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

Unpopular and unsupported by any section of society, the duke behaved arrogantly, defiantly, and soon quarreled even with the parents of the infant emperor. Meanwhile, the prospect of waiting for Ivan Antonovich to come of age under the rule of Biron did not attract anyone, least of all the guards, whose idol was the daughter of Peter I, Tsesarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. Field Marshal B.K. took advantage of these sentiments. Minich, for whom Biron was an obstacle to the heights of power. On the night of November 9, 1740, a detachment of 80 guardsmen led by Minikh broke into the Summer Palace and, almost without resistance, arrested Biron. Probably, many of the participants in the coup thought that now Elizabeth would become the empress, but this was not part of Minich’s plans and Ivan Antonovich’s mother Anna Leopoldovna was declared the ruler, and his father, Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, received the title of generalissimo and commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The latter was unexpected for Munnich, who hoped to become a generalissimo himself. In a fit of resentment, he resigned and soon received it. But this was the ruler’s mistake, because now there was no one left in her entourage who would have influence on the guard.

The glee that seized the inhabitants of St. Petersburg over the overthrow of Biron was soon replaced by despondency: Anna Leopoldovna was a kind woman, but lazy and completely incapable of governing the state. Her inactivity demoralized the highest dignitaries, who did not know what decisions to make, and who preferred not to decide anything, so as not to make a fatal mistake. Meanwhile, the name of Elizabeth was still on everyone's lips. For the guardsmen and residents of St. Petersburg, she was primarily the daughter of Peter the Great, whose reign was remembered as a time of glorious military victories, grandiose transformations, and at the same time order and discipline. People from Anna Leopoldovna's entourage saw Elizabeth as a threat and demanded that the dangerous rival be removed from St. Petersburg by marrying her off or simply sending her to a monastery. Such a danger, in turn, pushed Elizabeth to conspiracy.

She was also not too power-hungry, more than anything she was attracted by dresses, balls and other entertainments, and it was this way of life that she was most afraid of losing.

1.5 Peter's daughter rises to power

The conspiracy was pushed by Elizabeth and her own environment, in which there were also foreigners who pursued their own interests. So, the doctor of the princess Lestok brought her together with the French ambassador, the Marquis of Chétardie, who counted, in the event of Elizabeth coming to power, on Russia's refusal from the alliance with Austria and rapprochement with France. Changes in Russian foreign policy were also sought by the Swedish ambassador Nolken, who hoped to achieve a revision of the terms of the Peace of Nystadt in 1721, which secured Russia's possessions in the Baltic states. But Elizabeth was not at all going to give Sweden land, and she did not really need foreigners either. On the contrary, it was precisely the abundance of foreigners at court that was one of the factors that irritated both the guards and the inhabitants of St. Petersburg.

A new coup was carried out by the guards regiments in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. The French ambassador was involved in the conspiracy, hoping to benefit from this for his country. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth, at the head of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, arrested the Braunschweig family and deposed Ivan Antonovich. Soon the carriages of the dignitaries awakened by the drummers were drawn to the palace, in a hurry to express their loyal feelings to the new ruler of Russia. She herself forever remembered this night not only as the night of her triumph. From now on, she always saw the specter of a new coup, she tried not to sleep at night and in all her palaces she did not have a permanent bedroom, but ordered every night to make a bed in different chambers.

The arrested were sent abroad, but returned from the way, kept in exile in different cities, finally placed in Kholmogory, and when Ivan Antonovich grew up, he, as a contender for the throne, was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, ordering the commandant to kill the prisoner while trying to escape. When on July 4-5, 1764, a descendant of noble Cossacks, the son of the governor, lieutenant Vasily Yakovlevich Mirovich, tried to release Ivan Antonovich, the commandant complied with the order.

In the reign of Elizabeth, Russia returned to the Petrine order: the Senate was restored and the Cabinet of Ministers was liquidated, the magistrates resumed their activities, and the Secret Chancellery was preserved. In 1744 the death penalty was abolished. In the development of Peter's reforms, other measures were taken in the spirit of "enlightened absolutism", for which in 1754 the Legislative Commission was formed. According to her projects, on April 1, 1754, internal customs duties were abolished. Decree of 1754. "On the Punishment of Moneylenders" the marginal interest rate was capped at 6%. They formed the State Loan Bank, which consisted of the Bank for the Nobility and the Merchant Bank. The pro-noble nature of the reforms was especially reflected in the granting to the nobles in 1754 of a monopoly on distillation. According to the new decree, the nobles had to prove their origin. Decrees were being prepared on the secularization of church lands and "liberties of the nobility." Munnich and Osterman were sent into exile. In contrast to the recent dominance of the Germans at the court, the main government posts were now occupied by Russian nobles. Counts Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov and Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin became prominent statesmen. Favorites mattered. The singer of the court choir, the Ukrainian peasant Alexei Grigorievich Rozum, became Count Razumovsky and field marshal. At the end of 1742, he and Elizabeth secretly married in the church of the village of Perovo near Moscow (now Moscow).

Elizaveta Petrovna took care of the successor in advance, already at the very beginning of her reign, declaring her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich to them. However, brought to Russia at an early youthful age, this grandson of Peter the Great did not manage to either fall in love or get to know the country he was to rule. His impulsive nature, love for everything Prussian and frank contempt for Russian national customs, along with the lack of the makings of a statesman, frightened the Russian nobles, deprived them of confidence in the future - their own and the whole country.

In 1743, Elizabeth married him to a poor German princess Sophia-August-Frederike of Anhalt-Tserbskaya, after the adoption of Orthodoxy, she was called Ekaterina Alekseevna. When their son Pavel was born in 1754, Elizabeth took him into her care, isolating him from his parents, so that he would grow up Russian in spirit. There is an assumption that Elizaveta Petrovna herself wanted to deprive the Grand Duke of her inheritance, declaring her son Pavel, who was born to them, as her successor. On the other hand, some Russian nobles, in particular Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, began to think about how instead of Peter to enthrone his wife. But Bestuzhev fell into disgrace and was exiled, and Elizabeth did not dare to carry out her intentions. December 25, 1761, when Elizabeth died, Peter III became emperor.

Peter's behavior on the throne justified the worst fears of the courtiers. He behaved like a child escaping from adult supervision, it seemed to him that, as an autocrat, everything was allowed to him. Rumors spread throughout the capital, and throughout the country, about the tsar's intentions to replace Orthodoxy with Protestantism, and the Russian guardsmen with Holsteins. The society condemned the hasty conclusion of peace with Prussia, the emperor's ostentatious Prusophilia and his plans to start a war with Denmark. And almost from the first days of his reign, a conspiracy began to mature around him, headed by his wife Catherine.

Peter III and Catherine had a difficult relationship and were unhappy in marriage. Catherine became close to the officer Grigory Grigorievich Orlov. Soon, a circle of devoted people formed around her, headed by the Orlov brothers, in which, by 1756, a conspiracy had matured to seize power and transfer the throne to Catherine. The conspiracy was fueled by rumors about the intention of the ill Elizabeth to leave the throne to Paul, and send Catherine and her husband to Holstein. The conspiracy was supported by the British ambassador. After the accession to the throne of Peter III, the conspiracy continued to grow and deepen. The coup was scheduled for the beginning of July 1762. But the denouement came earlier, when Peter III, preparing for the war with Denmark, ordered the guards to go to Finland. The guards were not informed about the purpose of the campaign, she decided that the conspiracy had been discovered and they wanted to remove her from the capital. Peter III really found out about the conspiracy, Grigory Orlov was arrested. On June 29, Peter III tried to hide in Kronstadt, but the fortress did not accept him, having met him with fire.

In the meantime, on June 28 at 6 o'clock in the morning, Alexei Orlov appeared in Peterhof to Catherine and said that the plot had been discovered. Catherine hurried to St. Petersburg to the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other guardsmen joined her and proclaimed her autocrat. They brought Paul here. In the presence of nobles, Catherine was solemnly proclaimed empress and her son heir. From the cathedral she went to the Winter Palace, where the members of the Senate and the Synod took the oath.

Meanwhile, on the morning of June 28, Peter III arrived with his retinue from Oranienbaum to Peterhof and discovered the disappearance of his wife. Soon it became known about what happened in St. Petersburg. The emperor still had forces loyal to him, and if he had shown determination, perhaps he would have been able to turn the tide of events. But Peter hesitated and only after much deliberation decided to try to land in Kronstadt. By this time, however, Admiral I.L., sent by Catherine, was already there. Talyzin and the emperor had to return to Peterhof, and then he had no choice but to sign his abdication. Peter III was seized and taken to the manor (farm) Ropsha, 20 km from Oranienbaum, guarded by Alexei Orlov and other officers. At dinner, the conspirators poisoned him, and then strangled him in front of a servant who came running to the cry. The subjects were informed of the death of the emperor from a "hemorrhoidal attack."

Having seized the throne, Catherine II continued Peter's policy of creating a strong absolutist state, claiming the role of an "enlightened monarch".

1.7 Failed plots against Catherine II

Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II. More than once during this time, especially in the early years, new coups were attempted (the most serious of them was an attempt by V.Ya. Mirovich in 1764 to free Ivan Antonovich from the Shlisselburg fortress), but they all failed in 1796, when Catherine died, on Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.

In many character traits, he resembled his father: he was also quick-tempered, impulsive, unpredictable, despotic. Like 34 years earlier, the courtiers, dignitaries and generals did not know what awaited them tomorrow: a meteoric rise or disgrace. The tsar’s enthusiasm for the military, his desire to impose Prussian orders and cane discipline in the army caused sharp rejection among the military, and this time not only in the guard, but throughout the army. So, for example, an anti-government circle, consisting of officers, existed in Smolensk, but was uncovered. When dissatisfaction with the tyrant tsar became general, a new conspiracy against Paul matured in St. Petersburg. The conspirators enlisted the support of Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, apparently promising him that they would not cause physical harm to Paul and would only force him to sign the abdication. On the night of March 11, 1801, a group of officers, meeting almost no resistance, broke into the emperor's chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle. Frightened to death, they found Pavel hiding behind a screen. A dispute ensued: the emperor was required to abdicate in favor of Alexander, but he refused. And then the excited conspirators attacked Paul. One of them hit him on the temple with a golden snuffbox, the other began to choke him with a scarf. Soon it was all over.

Some historians are inclined to consider the uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 as an attempt at a coup. Indeed, soldiers and officers of the regiments stationed in the capital, mostly guards, also took part in it. However, the leaders of the rebels sought not only to replace one autocrat with another, but to change the political system of Russia. And this is the fundamental difference. If the plans of the Decembrists had been realized, then this would, of course, be the result of a coup, but not a palace coup, but a state coup. However, there is no clear boundary between these two concepts. And if the overthrow of Menshikov in 1728 was clearly a palace coup, then these events can also be considered state coups.

For a long time it was believed that the "epoch of palace coups" in Russia in the 18th century. was generated by the decree of Peter I of 1722, which left the autocrats to choose their own heir. However, this is not true. One of the reasons is that after the death of Peter II, there were no direct male heirs in the royal family and different family members could claim the throne with equal rights. But much more important is that the coups were a kind of manifestation of public opinion, and even more than that - an indicator of the maturity of Russian society, which was a direct consequence of Peter's reforms at the beginning of the century. Thus, in 1741 there was widespread dissatisfaction with the inaction of the government and the "dominance of foreigners", in 1762 and 1801 the Russian people did not want to put up with petty tyrants on the throne. And although the guardsmen always acted as direct executors of the conspiracies, they expressed the mood of much wider sections of the population, because information about what was happening in the palace was widely disseminated throughout St. Petersburg through palace servants, sentry soldiers, etc. In autocratic Russia there were no ways of expressing public opinion, which are in countries with a democratic political system, and therefore public opinion was expressed through palace and state coups in such a peculiar and even ugly way. From this point of view, it becomes clear that the widely held opinion that the guardsmen acted only in the interests of a handful of nobles is not true.

The long reign of Catherine II is filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The "golden age of the Russian nobility" was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the "Instruction" and the Legislative Commission side by side with the persecution of N.I. Novikov and A.N. Radishchev. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own super-task. It was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia (A.B. Kamensky).

The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers, or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II) and others. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction between the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the established order of things (estate system, despotism, lack of rights, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility .

Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, the poor empress, are on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the question of the serfs is highly indicative. There is no doubt about the negative attitude of the empress to serfdom. She often thought about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflections. Catherine II was clearly aware that the elimination of serfdom would be indignantly perceived by the nobles, and the peasant masses, ignorant and in need of guidance, would not be able to use the granted freedom for their own benefit. Serfdom legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners.

The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

convocation and activity of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768). The goal was to develop a new code of laws, which was intended to replace the Cathedral Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Coded Commission. By the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous "Order", in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It spoke about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the well-being of the people. The activities of the commission did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies failed to rise above the narrow interests of the estates and did not show much zeal in formulating reforms. In December 1768, the empress dissolved the Legislative Commission and did not create more similar institutions;

reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 counties (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform provincial government system was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, provincial government exercising executive power, the Treasury (tax collection, spending), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built according to a strictly estate principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917;

the adoption in 1785 of the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, transfer them by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);

the adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;

the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;

reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of government, serfdom, the estate system remained unshakable. Pugachev's peasant war, the storming of the Bastille and the execution of King Louis XVI did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently, in the 90s. and completely stopped. Persecution A.N. Radishchev, N.I. Novikov were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the "golden age of Catherine II."

And, nevertheless, it was in this era that the Free Economic Society appeared, free printing houses worked, there was a heated journal debate, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage and the Public Library in St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and pedagogical schools in both capitals were founded. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the estates, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

The last time the guards regiments said their weighty word was in 1762, when Peter III, the official heir to Elizabeth Petrovna, was deposed from the throne, and his wife was proclaimed Empress Catherine II.

Power passed from one hand to another whimsically and unpredictably. The capital guards, at their own discretion, decided to whom to transfer the throne and crown. There is nothing surprising in the fact that the nobility managed to achieve the fulfillment of many of their desires. Distinctions between patrimony and estate disappeared, the landownership rights of the nobles were guaranteed. Ownership of serfs became a class privilege of the nobility, it received enormous judicial and police power over the peasants, the right to exile them to Siberia without trial, to sell them without land. The term of military service was limited to 25 years, a cadet corps was established, youths of the nobility could enroll in regiments and not start serving as soldiers. The apogee was the manifesto of Peter III on the freedom of the nobility, which freed the nobles from compulsory service. Elements of "enlightened absolutism" can be seen in the policies of all the monarchs of Russia in the 18th century. Especially brightly "enlightened absolutism" manifested itself under Catherine II. Catherine did not like music and singing, but she was well educated, knew the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, read modern philosophers, corresponded with the French enlighteners Voltaire and Diderot. She hoped through legislative reforms to eliminate the contradictions between estates and classes.

Catherine II was unable to overcome irreconcilable social contradictions. "Enlightened absolutism" of Paul I, his attempts to mitigate serfdom ended in the death of the reformer. In the second half of the XVIII century. all aspirations for a radical reorganization of the state crashed against its very foundation - serfdom and the fierce resistance of the nobility.

1. Gavrilov B.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: A manual for university students / B.I. Gavrilov. - M.: Publishing house "New Wave", 1998.

2. Grinin L.E. History of Russia: A guide for applicants to universities in 4 parts / L.E. Grinin. - M.: Ed. "Teacher", 1995.

G. arrested him. The all-powerful temporary worker was recently exiled to the Siberian city of Pelym. Anna Leopoldovna, the emperor's mother, became the ruler. But a year later, on the night of November 25, 1741, a new palace coup followed. Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Elizaveta Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great, became Empress. Anna Leopoldovna was arrested, Osterman was exiled to Berezov, where at one time ...

Funds were often used unproductively, they lived without thinking about tomorrow. TOPIC 48. INTERNAL POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE II QUARTER OF THE XIX CENTURY. 1. The main political principles of Nicholas's reign. Second quarter of the 19th century. entered the history of Russia as the "Nikolaev era" or even "the era of the Nikolaev reaction." The most important slogan of Nicholas I, who was on...

For the annexation of new lands, and in the struggle for power within the grand-ducal family (the struggle of Elena Voloshanka and Sophia Paleolog). To study the methods of political struggle in the 17th century, it is necessary, by analyzing the facts known in excess, to trace the change in the addressees addressed by the opposing sides, as well as the plots used to create the necessary public opinion. One more...

Estates to take over local government, to become the government class in the provinces. In April 1785, letters of commendation to the nobility and cities were issued, which formalized the estate system of the Russian Empire. "Charter to the nobility" finally consolidated and formalized all his class rights and privileges. The "Letter of Letters to the Cities" fixed the class structure of the city's population, which ...

The focus of attention of Russian diplomats was the traditional Black Sea problem and the active protection of the conquests in the Baltic.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774

April 1769 - the first two campaigns under the command of A.M. Golitsyn were unsuccessful, although before his departure he nevertheless took Khotyn (September 10) and Iasi (September 26). Then the Russian troops took Bucharest. Soon Moldova swore allegiance to Russia.

After a series of victories by I.F. Medem, Kabarda swore allegiance to Russia.

In 1770 Russia scored even greater victories over Turkey. Russian troops occupied Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman and others.

1770, June 25-26; July 7 and July 21 - the victory of the Russian fleet at Chesme and the troops of P.A. Rumyantsev at Larga and Cahul.

July 1771 - Yu.V. Dolgoruky was announced the approval of eternal friendship with Russia, as a result, Russia formed its own peace conditions that did not suit Austria.

In June 1774 Russian troops again raided the Danube. The Turks suffered several defeats at once.

§ The Crimean Khanate was declared independent;

§ The fortresses of Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn pass to Russia;

§ The Black and Marmara Seas are declared free for merchant ships of Russian citizens;

§ Georgia is freed from the heaviest tribute by young men and girls sent to Turkey;

§ Turkey pays Russia 4.5 million rubles. for military expenses.

1783 - the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, the entry of its territory into Russia. Foundation of Sevastopol.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791.

August 21, 1787 the Turkish fleet attacked the Russian guards near Kinburn. The defeat of the Turks, the failure of their attempt to seize the Crimea from the sea and destroy Sevastopol.

1788 - the actions of the Russian army focused on the assault on the Turkish fortress Ochakov, since the main forces of the Turkish fleet were stationed in the harbor. In the battle near Serpent's Island, under the command of F.F. Ushakov, the Russians won. December - successful assault on Ochakov;

§ Turkey ceded to Russia all the lands of the Black Sea up to the Dniester River, gave Ochakov;

§ Turkey was obliged to pay damages for the raids in the North Caucasus;

§ Moldavia, Bessarabia and Wallachia were still in the hands of the Porte, and the issue of the protectorate of Georgia was not resolved.

Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790.

In the summer of 1788 the Tripartite Alliance was created against Russia (England, Prussia, Holland), finally, Prussia, England and Turkey achieved an attack on Russia by Sweden.

June 1788 - Swedish troops besieged the fortresses of Neishlot and Friedrichsgam, the Swedish fleet entered the action and entered the Gulf of Finland;

July 1788 - the battle near the island of Hogland, the victory of the Russians, thereby the Russians stopped the attempt of Gustav III to capture St. Petersburg;

1789 - Russian troops launched an offensive in Finland, the victory of Russia;

1772 - the first partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Eastern Belarus with borders along the Western Dvina, Druti and Dnieper.

1793 - the second partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine;

1794 - uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko;

1795 - the third partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland and part of Volhynia;

Having issued a decree on succession to the throne in 1722, according to which the monarch had to appoint his own successor, Peter died safely in 1725, without naming the coveted name.


After his death, the widow Catherine occupies the throne with the support of Peter's associates (mainly Menshikov and Tolstoy), who in time enlisted the support of the guards, the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments. During the two years of her reign, Menshikov had full power, the Supreme Privy Council was created. Just before his death, a “testament” was signed (by the daughter instead of the mother), which dealt with the succession to the throne. The first to inherit was the Grand Duke-grandson (Peter II), the crown princes Anna and Elizabeth and the Grand Duchess Natalia (Peter II's sister). However, judging by the further development of events, this will meant nothing.

The accession of the grandson of Peter the Great was prepared by a new intrigue with the participation of the guards. The omnipotent Menshikov was going to marry the prince to his daughter Marya; an engagement was made. However, over time, he lost influence on the young emperor, whose favorites were Alexei and Ivan Dolgoruky. This was followed by the fall of Menshikov and the conclusion of a new engagement - with Ivan's sister Ekaterina. However, Peter falls dangerously ill and dies almost on his wedding day.

She was the daughter of Ivan V, the widow of the Duke of Courland, who lived in Courland on Russian money and was summoned by the Supreme Privy Council in Russia in 1730. When she ascended the throne, she signed the conditions limiting autocratic power. Under the pressure of the nobles, she then tore them apart, succumbing to persuasion to rule on her own. However, for the next 10 years, it was not she who actually ruled, but her long-term favorite Biron, whom she brought from Courland.
She appointed her two-month-old nephew as her successor, Biron was to be regent. After Anna's death, the temporary worker was arrested.

His mother, Anna Leopoldovna, the wife of the Duke of Brunswick, proclaimed herself the ruler, mmm, regent. She had fun for about a year, because Elizabeth (daughter of Peter the Great) was terribly tired of waiting for her turn, and with the help of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, she decided to stage another coup, which she easily succeeded, since she was not popular.
All this was very theatrical: having prayed to God and vowed not to execute anyone, Elizabeth puts on the uniform of the regiment, takes the cross and leads the company of grenadiers who brought her to the Winter Palace. There they woke up and rather frightened the couple of autocrats, who, together with the baby, were arrested. Now Elizabeth could breathe easy.

Essay on the history of Russia

"The era of palace coups in XVIII century"

2010

1. Introduction

2.1 Causes of palace coups

2.2. The era of palace coups

3.Conclusion

4. List of references

Introduction

It was Peter I who was responsible for the instability of the supreme power in Russia in the 18th century.

Thus, the circle of possible contenders for the throne expanded.

After the death of Peter I, the struggle for the Russian throne between the pretenders, who expressed the interests of various groups of the nobility, intensified. The replacement of the throne was most often carried out with the help of palace coups, in which the noble guards participated. They were carried out relatively easily, because they did not aim to radically change the policy of the state. Everyone who came to the supreme power in Russia, invariably, in one way or another, contributed to strengthening the position of the nobility by expanding its class privileges and strengthening power over the serfs. Not without reason, therefore, the era of palace coups in Russia is called the time of the formation of the noble empire.

Causes of palace coups

Ironically, Peter I was unable to use his own decree on succession to the throne due to his sudden death. In the autumn of 1724, the tsar caught a cold while helping to rescue soldiers from a shipwrecked boat on the seashore near St. Petersburg. In January, when his position became hopeless, Peter began to draw up a will on the eve of his death, January 27, and did not have time to carry out his plan. From what he wrote, only the words remained: “give everything ...”

Among his heirs are:

grandson Peter, son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei;

second wife Ekaterina Alekseevna

a captive from Livonia, who bore the name of Marta Skavronskaya,

pupil of Pastor Gluck, with whom Peter met in 1704, married in 1712 and whom he crowned with the imperial crown in 1724. They had two sons, Peter and Pavel, who died in infancy, and two daughters: Anna, who was married to Duke of Holstein, and Elizabeth, who remained unmarried and childless.

In addition to this dynastic line, there was another - the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, the half-brother of Peter I, who had two daughters - Anna and Catherine. Peter married the first in 1711 to the Duke of Courland, the second to the Duke of Mecklenburg.

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne.

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which came to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to its service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

Thirdly, the guards were the driving force behind the coups. Indeed, it was the guards who, during the period under review, decided the question of who should be on the throne.

At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, which, moreover, assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.

In general, it would be most correct to assess the time of palace coups as a period of development of the noble empire from the formations of Peter the Great to a new major modernization of the country under Catherine 2. In the second quarter - the middle of the 18th century, there were no major reforms the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna is estimated as a period of counter-reforms).

The era of palace coups

Coup in favor of Ekaterina Alekseevna

The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson.

In May 1727, Catherine I died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo.

But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovo, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation has changed. In which aristocratic families began to prevail (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question arose about the heir to the throne, because with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne. It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

Anna Ioannovna and her "conditions"

After the death of Peter II, the question of succession to the throne arose again. Dolgoruky's attempt to enthrone the former tsar's bride, Catherine Dolgoruky, was unsuccessful. The Golitsyn family, traditionally competing with the Dolgoruky, nominated Anna of Kurlyandskaya, the niece of Peter I, as the heir. Anna Ioannovna received the crown at the cost of signing the Conditions, limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council. In Russia, instead of an absolute monarchy, a limited monarchy was established.

However, the majority of aristocrats (and representatives of other segments of the population) did not like this idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe "supreme leaders". They considered the Conditions an attempt to establish a regime in Russia in which all power would belong to two families - Golitsyn and Dolgoruky. After Anna Ioannovna publicly tore up the Conditions, the Dolgoruky clan was subjected to repression. ". She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more calloused by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna was a time of fierce struggle around the throne. Her all-powerful favorite Biron, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich, the same Osterman and the new face of court politics, Artemy Petrovich Volynsky, took part in the struggle.

As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of treason and an attempted palace coup against Anna.

Already in 1730, Anna Ioannovna took care of the issue of an heir. Since she did not have her own children, she placed all her hopes on her niece, Elizabeth Christina of Mecklenburg. Having received the name of Anna Leopoldovna at baptism, she was declared the successor. Rather, the future child of Anna Leopoldovna was declared the heir.

By decree of December 17, 1731, the autocrat restored Peter's "Heritage Charter" of 1722 into force. And then the population of Russia took an oath of allegiance to the unborn son of the royal niece.

In 1732, Prince Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig Bevern Blackenburg of Lüneburg arrived in Russia, the offspring of one of the most ancient royal families in Europe - the Welfs. He came to Russia under the guise of entering the Russian service, but his main mission was to become the husband of Anna Leopoldovna. In 1739, his engagement and marriage to Anna Leopoldovna took place, and in 1740 the long-awaited heir was born.

Thus, the threat from possible applicants - Elizabeth Petrovna and Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein (the future Peter III) was eliminated. Anna Ioannovna dies in 1740. In Russia, despite the fact that an heir has been proclaimed - John VI (some authors call him John III), another palace coup is brewing ... Biron is proclaimed regent.

Biron's regency - Minich's coup

The short period of the regency of Ernst-Johann Biron in historical works is covered and evaluated quite unambiguously. The regency of Biron, which became possible with the active support of the same Munnich, Osterman, Cherkassky, lasted no more than three weeks. This speaks solely of the inability of E. I. Biron to independently manage the state, of his inability (or rather, unwillingness) to consolidate with those who could be useful to him.

Even having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight Minich. This time is also characterized by the confrontation between the regent and Anna Leopoldovna. In addition, Biron finally restores against himself and the wife of the princess - Anton Ulrich.

Dissatisfaction with the regent was ripening in the country. On November 8, 1740, another palace coup took place, only Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich was the “soul” of the conspiracy. By the way, it is believed that the first "classic" palace coup was carried out by Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich. The extremely ambitious Minich counted on one of the first places in the state, but he did not receive any new posts or the expected title of generalissimo from the regent. Adjutant G. Kh. Manstein describes in detail the arrest of Biron and his family in his Notes on Russia. In other words, the Germans made a coup against the Germans. In addition to the Germans, of course, Russian supporters of the regent also suffered. For example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - later a well-known politician of the Elizabethan reign.

A Manifesto was also published on behalf of the baby emperor, from which it followed that the former regent violated the legal rights of him, the emperor, his parents and, in general, had the audacity to do all sorts of "... nasty things to repair." Thus, the palace coup received an official justification! Historians have always unequivocally assessed this coup. Here is how S. M. Solovyov writes: “Russia was presented to an immoral and mediocre foreigner as the price of a shameful connection! It was unbearable."

"Patriotic" coup by Elizabeth Petrovna

On November 25, 1741, another (and not the last in the 18th century) palace coup took place, and it was initiated by Elizabeth Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I.

A lot has been written about this coup, and almost all historical (and even more so, fiction) literature interprets this event as a “triumph of the Russian spirit”, as the end of foreign domination, as the only possible and even completely legal act.

V. O. Klyuchevsky calls Elizabeth as follows: "The most legitimate of all the successors and successors of Peter I." The name of Tsarina Elizabeth was called at each change of rulers since 1725, but each time the crown went to someone else. Elizabeth has always been very calm about advice and calls to act for the sake of accession to the throne. I must say that in 1741, "Petrov's daughter" succumbed to the persuasion of her entourage only under the influence of fear of an unknown future.

In public opinion, by the will of political circumstances, Elizabeth earned a reputation as the head of a certain “Russian” party that opposed the dominance of foreigners at the courts of Anna Ioannovna and Anna Leopoldovna. In this respect, Elizabeth of 1741 was the exact opposite of Elizabeth of 1725.

After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment, Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lübeck prince-bishop Karl-August, who later died of a transient illness).

It should be noted that Elizabeth was not some kind of special Russian patriot, she simply became the center of attraction for that court group, which at the moment was removed from power. The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by the rejection of foreigners as by their own interests.

In addition, there are inexorable facts indicating that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chétardie and Nolken, and that it was foreign courts that played an important role in the anti-government (essentially) adventure of the princess.

The night of the coup was included not only in the history books, but also in the legends. The phrase with which the princess led the guards to storm is known: “Do you know whose daughter I am?” This was quite enough - the authority of Peter was too great in all sectors of society.

Elizabeth's victory brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M. I. Vorontsov.

Of course, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.

However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared her heir to Holstein-Gottorp Prince Karl-Peter-Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife Sophia-Augusta-Frederick Anhalt-Zerbstskaya (Fike) some time later became. The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of coups has taught her - she will successfully bring them to life.

186 days of Peter III

The coup of June 28, 1762 (July 9, according to a new style) in Russian and Soviet historical literature has always been interpreted unequivocally - smart, decisive, patriotic Catherine overthrows her insignificant spouse (marginal and traitor to Russian interests).

V. O. Klyuchevsky spoke of this event in the following way: “To the indignant national feeling was mixed in her (Ekaterina) a self-satisfied consciousness that she creates and gives the Fatherland her own government, although illegal, but which will understand and observe its interests better than the legal one.”

... Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. (England at that moment was very profitable change of political course in Russia).

However, Elizabeth died only in 1761 and her rightful heir Peter III ascended the throne.

During his short reign, Peter brought to life a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigative Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on his estate. ("Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberties to the Russian nobility").

It is believed, however, that the cause of the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was blamed for: disrespect for Russian shrines and the conclusion of a "shameful peace" with Prussia.

In fact, Peter led Russia out of the war, which was draining the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia was fulfilling its allied duty to Austria (that is, there was no "Russian interest" in the Seven Years' War).

However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards were especially worried, which, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup.

In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and, in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to comply with as emperor. Frederick II in his letters persistently advised Peter to put on the crown as soon as possible, but the emperor did not heed the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people, he was like a "fake tsar."

As for Catherine, then, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner, on the eve of a divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter emphasized more than once that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizabeth Vorontsova).

The signal for the beginning of the coup was the arrest of an officer - the Transfiguration Passek. Alexei Orlov (brother of the favorite) brought Ekaterina to St. Petersburg early in the morning, where she turned to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then to the Semyonovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of the Senate and the Synod.

On the evening of June 28, a “campaign to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of the heir Pavel. The emperor's indecisiveness and some kind of childish obedience did their job - no advice and actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of a state of fear and stupor.

He rather quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, in essence, for his life. The deposed autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.

Frederick II commented on this event: "He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child who is sent to sleep."

Coup and coming to power of Catherine II

A new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who declared very sharply his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childishly capricious nature.

The coup of 1762 put on the throne a woman not only smart and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. The empress wanted law and order in government; acquaintance with affairs showed her that disorder prevails not only in the particulars of government, but also in laws; her predecessors continuously took care of bringing into a systematic code the entire bulk of individual legal provisions that had accumulated since the Code of 1649, and could not cope with this matter.

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know the current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth's time, P.I. Shuvalov, died; she had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles.

One Count N.I. Panin enjoyed her confidence. Under Catherine, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign in getting acquainted with Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers and strengthening her personal position in power.

grounds. She not only wanted to streamline the legislative material, but sought to create new legislative norms that would help establish order and legality in the state. She wanted to create new legislation, and not bring the old into a system. As early as 1765, Ekaterina diligently began to set forth legislative principles and worked without telling anyone about the content of her work. The articles prepared by Catherine were her famous Order in his

original edition. Catherine established her principles of the new Russian legislation on the basis of the philosophical and journalistic thinking of contemporary European literature. So, according to Catherine, ancient Russia lived with alien

morals that should have been remade in a European way, because Russia is a European country. Peter began this alteration by introducing European customs, and he succeeded. Now Catherine continues this work and introduces pan-European laws into Russian laws.

start. Precisely because they are European, they cannot be alien to Russia, although they may seem so because of their novelty. Catherine gave the Order to the officials, and they reduced everything that they considered unnecessary. In 1775, "Institutions for the administration of provinces" were published. Instead of the previous 20 provinces that existed in 1766, by 1795 fifty-one provinces had already appeared according to these "institutions about provinces". Previously, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into counties; now the provinces are divided directly into counties. Previously, regional division was carried out by chance, which is why it turned out that, for example, Moscow province had 2,230,000 inhabitants, and Arkhangelsk only 438,000, but meanwhile

the numerical staff of the administration was approximately the same in both provinces. Now, under the new administrative division, it was adopted as a rule that in each province there were from 300 to 400 thousand inhabitants, and in the district from 20 to 30

thousand. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration,

separate departments and involve them in management

earth elements. The legislation on the peasants of Catherine's time continued to further restrict peasant rights and strengthen the landowner's power over him. During the peasant unrest in 1765-1766, the landowners received the right

to exile their peasants not only to a settlement in Siberia (this has already happened before), but also to hard labor, "for insolence" to the landowner. The landowner at any time could give the peasant to the soldiers, without waiting for the recruitment time. Decree of 1767 to the peasants

It was forbidden to file any complaints against the landowners. During the reign of Catherine, the secularization of church lands, the development of legislation on estates, judicial reform, the legislative consolidation of private property, measures to expand trade and entrepreneurship, and the introduction of paper money were carried out.

The historical significance of the Catherine’s era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of the previous history were summed up, the historical processes that had developed earlier were completed. historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.

Conclusion

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

Bibliography

Minikh I.E.» Russia and the Russian Court in the First Half of the 18th Century

S.F. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history".

Magazine "Motherland"

http://wale-life.ru/2010/01/05/jepokha-dvorcovykh-perevorotov.html

http://storytime.ru/

Appendix 1

Chronological table